- Explain the developmental pattern during adolescence and bring out its educational implication
- What factors cause anxiety to an adolescent? In what ways, can teachers and parents help adolescents to overcome their social and emotional differences
Ans The term adolescent comes from the Latin word adoloscre meaning to grow or to grow to maturity. Period of adolescent is the most crucial period in the life of human beings. The adolescent is eager to interact with new experiences, to find new relation ship to examine resources of inner strength and fathom the strength of inner ability. The adolescent tries to have freedom to think and ser his own goals and discover means to achieve them. The adolescent wants to have more freedom to enjoy. It is necessary for the young person to have in a right manner and establish himself and obey the rules at home and outside.
Adolescent is still a formative stage of human life. Adolescents will show a great capacity for change. They will have flexibility. Adolescents, who are emotionally disturbed, also show capacity for growth and change. They are liable to modify themselves under congenial conditions of environment. The adolescent is by nature a rebel against the traditions and customs prevailing in his society. His rebellions instinct can be channeled to good use by the teacher who can help to develop a generation which hate all the bad tradition and rids society of them. Adolescents can be taught to rise above their narrow interests and comprehend the spirit of nationality, internationality and cosmic love.
In adolescence the individual should be given vocational guidance after his mental capacities, inclinations and interests have been examines. His education should conform to the vocation that he is going to pursue in the future so that he may not be misfit in any occupations but should rather be able to earn and comfortable living, establish a house hold and contribute actively to national development.
Development of self is an important phase of adolescence stage. Self is a very complicated concept. Physical and psychological growth in adoloscnt is influenced by many factors. Relative influence of various factors in development of physical and psychological attributes of adolescent stage of boys and girls. One of the important factors that affect the growth of adolescent’s physically and psychologically is parents. Parents are very important factor in the growth of adolescence. Affectionate and loving parents inculcate and emotional feeling of goodness in their children. Children under such conditions learn to be free, frank, honest, and candid such children learn to be spontaneous in their behavior.
Another important psychological feeling during adolescence is the existence of anxiety. There can be many causes for it. Adolescents seem to get upset by little things. They are disturbed by trivial events. Little unfriendliness of disapproval will disturb them. Anxiety in adolescents is attributed by jerild to 3 factors
- Stresses and uncertainties tied to human existence that affects the lives of all people.
- Conditions linked to the adolescent period of development and
- Difficulties associated with unresolved problem and conflicts in the adolescent’s life extending back into early childhood. The aforesaid factors play the respective role in generating anxiety among adolescents
Other factors, enumerated by other psychologists from time to time regarding the cause of anxiety are
a) Developmental predicaments among adolescents which are due to fast and quick growth in physical and mental aspects of the body
b) Problems of identification. Adolescents try to increased identification with heroes and other.
c) Increased enthusiasm for realism
The quality of home in which adolescents live may also affect their development. This development can have physical, emotional psychological and moral aspects. Social relationship of adolescents with people at home and outside house are important of them. Adolescents have to learn to gradually wean themselves away from parents and parental surrogates.
In every stage of social development of the child, education contributes much, but this education is not the literacy thrust upon the child through books and lectures. The real and incalculable factors that exert this influence are the extra curricular programs, the school atmosphere, rules of conduct in school, radio cinema, newspapers etc. Group camps almost invariably have a healthy influence upon the individuals’ social development or socialization. It helps form his character and develop social quality. He acquires good habits and developing many kinds of skill. In the informal atmosphere of the camp, individuals can meet and mix with greater freedom and informality so that their social education is set in emotion. In this manner, teachers and parents can co operative to create adequate facilities and opportunities for the healthy social development infants, children and adolescents
2. Briefly outline the theories of intelligence advanced by Guilford
Gardiner? Which of them do you prefer? Why?
or
There is no intelligent definition of intelligence. Discuss this statement in the
light of the theory of intelligence by Guilford
Ans Dr. J.P. Guilford developed and presented a well organized system of abilities called structure of intellect (SOI). These abilities, according to Guilford Guilford
The term intelligence can now be defined as “a systematic collection of abilities or functions processing information of different kinds in various forms”.
Let us consider the 3 dimensional cubical figures which represent the 3 factors of each ability and the carious categories involved in each dimension.
This model proposes that intelligence consists of 150 independent abilities that result from interaction of 5 types of content , 5 types of operation and 6 types of products. But in later it becomes 180 by splitting memory into retentive memory and association memory
Code for SOI categories
Operation
|
Content
|
Products
| |||
C
|
Cognition
|
V
|
Visual
|
U
|
Units
|
M
|
Memory
|
A
|
Auditory
|
C
|
Classes
|
D
|
Divergent thinking
|
S
|
Symbolic
|
R
|
relations
|
N
|
Convergent thinking
|
M
|
Semantic
|
S
|
System
|
E
|
Evaluation
|
B
|
Behavioral
|
T
|
Transformation
|
I
|
Implications
| ||||
I). Contents (The type of information involves)
a. Figural (Visual) :-The properties of stimuli we can experience through visual senses eg:- Color, size, shape, texture and other visual character of figure
b. Figural (Auditory):- The properties of stimuli we can experience through the auditory senses. Eg:- Voice and sound
c. Symbolic:- Number, letter, symbols, designs
d. Semantic:- The meaning of words, ideas
e. Behavioral:- The actions and expression of people
II). Operation (The way of processing information)
a) Cognition:- Recognizing and discovering
b) Memory:- Retaining, and recalling the contents of thought
c) Divergent production:- Producing a variety of ideas or solutions to a problem.
d) Convergent Production:- Producing a single best solution to a problem.
e) Evaluation:- Taking decision about the nature of the intellectual contents or gathered information. Whether it is positive or negative, good or bad etc.
III). Products (the results obtained through operations)
a) Units: - The individual pieces of information related to each other on the basis of some common characteristic involving a higher order concept.
b) Relations:- A connection between concepts
c) Systems:- A ordering or classification of relations.
d) Transformation:- Altering or restructuring intellectual contents.
e) Implication:- Making inferences from separate pieces of information
In this way according to Guilford
Gardiner’s theory of multiple intelligence
During the year 1983 Howard Gardiner advocated a new theory namely ‘Multiple intelligence’. Gardiner’s theory of multiple intelligence suggests that there are 8 kinds of human abilities. And theory formed in 1999, through his work, ‘multiple intelligence for the 21 st century’, he further modified his theory. He introduced 11 types of intelligence. According to him each person has a unique profile of this intelligence with different degrees of strength in some areas and weakness in others. The theory implies that traditional school education is likely to neglect a large portion of human abilities and that students considered as slow learners, low achievers etc by conventional academic measures.
The quote Gardiner: “Intelligence is the ability to fine and solve problem in create products of value in ones own culture”
The 11 types of intelligences presented by Gardiner in his theory of multiple intelligence are as follows
I. Verbal or linguistic intelligence
It is the capacity to use words both oral and written appropriately and effectively in time. Though there is an inborn capacity of language ability in every child, the effectiveness differs from person to person
Teachers should give emphasis to this aspect while thy plan and execute their teaching learning activities.
Some such tasks are
1). creating many opportunities for interaction among student and between the teacher and student.
2). Preparing written material for debate, seminar and discussion etc
3). Writing articles, imagery news etc
4). Making report on a study tour, picnic etc
II) Logical or mathematical intelligence
The existence of this intelligence will enable an individual to think logically, to find out the interrelation between ideas and to carry our some abstract thinking. This forms the basis for some systematic and orderly actions. Finding ou the logic behind some patterns, experimentation and observation, scientific analysis, inductive and deductive reasoning.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Establishing some relationship among various and related aspects.
2. Observing the diversity of plants and animals and making clarifications
3. Calculating the average rainfall of a given region.
4. Solving the practical problems in study camp
III) Visual or spatial intelligence
The presence of this type of intelligence enabled the geographical discovers and travelers to find out directions and observing locations of some places. The ability to sense form, space, color, size and shape. It include the ability to represent visual, or special ideas.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1). Making posters, charts etc upon some selected themes like environmental protection,
A forestation and deforestation etc.
2). Slide shows and pictures.
3). Map projection, drawing map etc.
IV) Musical or rhythmic intelligence
It includes the ability for perceiving discriminating, transforming musical forms. The ability to sense rhythm, pitch and melody. This includes such skills as the ability to recognize simple songs, tempo and rhythm in simple melodies. We can help students develop musical intelligence by using tape recorder for listening singing along and learning songs.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Reciting and appreciating poems, songs, light music etc.
2. Presenting such songs in chorus
V) Bodily or kinesthetic intelligence
It refers to the ability of an individual for keeping normally, increasing speed etc related to the physical and motor movements of his body. Construction of something, imitation, dramatization, using gestures and body language, excellence in games, play activities, experiments, dancing, swimming etc. Which need physical movements also involve this intelligence
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Conducting activities like nature study camp, mountaineering, swimming and sports
and games competition
2. Organizing musical dramas
3. Conducting dance programmes
VI) Inter personal intelligence
The ability to understand our self – our strength, weakness, moods, desires and intentions. Being a social animal, an individual has to interact with his fellow beings, understanding them properly and interpret the behavioral pattern. The intelligence that enables the individual to perform such tasks efficiently is qualifies as ‘inter personal’. Some politicians , cultural leader, social activists respond effectively to the public by feeling and evaluating their thoughts, emotions, likes and dislikes can be said to posses this type of intelligence
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Give opportunities for the group activities, sharing of experience and for involving in social issues and activities.
2. Follow co operative and collaborative learning strategies while dealing with the content.
3. Conduct debates and discussion day to day problem of society.
4. Conduct camp for developing
VII) Intra personal intelligence
The ability to understand another person’s moods, feelings, motivation and intentions. It denotes the ability of a person to analyse his own inner conflicts, problems and to solve these himself.
Strong will power, intrinsic motivation, senses of responsibility, self disciplines etc are some of the related characteristic of this type of intelligence
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Allow pupil to express freely and frankly.
2. Engage them in journal writing, reporting and in some imaginary writing.
3. Making sudden speeches and engaging in creative writings.
VIII) Naturalistic intelligence
It is revealed in the ability of an individual to observe nature keenly, identify the characteristics features of diverse plants and animals, to classify and categorize and to predict the changes in climate.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Sharing experience from nature
2. Conduct picnic, study tour, field trips etc to study forests, gardens and a variety of habitats
IX) Spiritual Intelligence
Intelligence deals with ability in taking part of religious and spiritual aspects. It deals with the spiritual religious practices of human community or civilization require the expression of these intelligence from the learner
X) Moral Intelligence
Moral intelligence expresses out in dealing with moral issues relating with right wrong, justice-injustice and good-bad etc. Moral intelligence become teaching when the morality and moral issues of the society are to be taught
XI) Existential intelligence
It indicates ability to survive in challenging situations. The national, international, socio-cultural political and economic challenges faced by the human beings when become a topic of study.
3. “Learning is learning to learn”. Discuss. Which are the types of experiences
help full for the concept of learning according to Bruner.
Learning to learning to learn. Infact it is learning to learn meaningfully
Teachers usually devote a large amount of their time in making their pupil learn information collected by others. But acquiring the collection of facts, principles and concepts of not enough. Need of the day is not only to attain mastery over factual information, but students must learn how to use the information they have attained. It is this concept which makes learning meaningful in a real sense.
Two famous cognitive psychologists, Jerome S Bruner and David
Ausubel, have given a convincing explanation of the issue of meaningful learning. Jerome Bruner stresses 2 points on learning.
Ausubel, have given a convincing explanation of the issue of meaningful learning. Jerome Bruner stresses 2 points on learning.
- Students should understand the structure of a body of knowledge rather than memorize the names, dates, places, rules and formulae as isolated fragments.
- They should also learn how to discover what they want to know. Hence it is the duty of the teacher to stress the structure of the field of study as the structure helps in understanding how fundamental ideas relate to one another. A grasp of the structure has a positive effect on understanding and problem solving capacity.
A particular subject may consist of a number of fundamental ideas which are inter-related. The inter-relationship of these ideas with one another is called the structure of the subject. Bruner suggested that when students are helped to grasp the structure of the field of study, their retention is better and thereby comprehension of principles is facilitated for their further application in a variety of situations. This further prepares the child to master more complex knowledge. That is how his learning becomes more and more meaningful.
Bruner further suggested a particular curriculum pattern called a spiral curriculum to promote meaningful learning. This lead us to know when and where children can grasp the meaning of fundamental ideas., like Piaget, Bruner believed that children of different ages represent the knowledge in different ways for example.
- A pre-schoolar thinks of the world in terms of actions. Bruner calls this the enactive mode of representation
- During child hood ideas are represented in terms of pictures or images, it is called the iconic mode of representation
- During adolescence ideas tend to be expressed in verbal form, formulae and symbols, it is called the symbolic mode of representation.
Bruner further states that children at tall ages can grasp the meaning of ideas if presented through their predominant mode or representation. In later years, the same ideas can be re-introduced with more complexity. This practice of re-teaching the same concept in a more complex form later, as the children move through inactive, iconic and symbolic modes of thought is termed as a spiral curriculum pattern by Bruner.
A very common illustration of this pattern is seen when we teach the concept of addition to children. To make clear the concept of 1+2=3, we first give the child one chocolate and then give him two more and ask him, how many chocolates do you have now? Thus, the concept of addition is taught through action. Concrete objects and actual actions make the concept clear to him. This is the enactive mode. Next stage is to use pictures or images. That is the iconic mode. Finally, the child can do various additions orally as soon as the numbers are given. This is the symbolic mode.
Bruner further suggests the approach of discovery learning which favors meaningful learning. According to him, when children are given an opportunity and practice in finding their own solutions to the problems, they develop problem solving skills and also gain confidence in the leaning process. They learn “how to learn” as they move further. As an example of this discovery approach, Bruner says ‘instead of making the 5th grade children memorize a set of facts from geography, give them blank outline maps which show the location of rivers, lakes, mountains, valleys, plain, etc. Ask the children to mark where major cities, rail routes and highways can be located with the help of their previous knowledge and reasoning’.
Criticism of the Discovery Approach
- It is not useful for primary class children allow achievers
- All discovery sessions may not be fruitful. Some may be waste of time.
- Students may become frustrated as only brighter ones may dominate the scene. This in turn may lead to jealousy, feeling of inferiority etc.
- Group discussion does not give equal chances of participation to all the students.
But this does not mean that discovery approach is not useful. It can be used by creating a relaxed atmosphere, by arranging the learning experiences properly, by structuring the discussion and by creating co-operating attitude in the class room.
4. What is Motivation? Quoting experimental studies explain its role in
Education process
Motivation is essential to the operation of organizations and class room activities. Although motivation is not the basis of learning it imparts dynamism and activity to the process of learning. Experimental studies have confirmed the view that the relations between learning and motivation are no direct. Even today, psychologists are faced with one major obstacle, where the relationship between learning and performance is due to motivation.
‘TO MOTIVATE MEANS TO GET THE STUDENT TO APPLY HIMSELF TO THE LEARNINAT AHAND”
“Motivation is to find those approaches that will make the child eager for the kind of learning the school endorses
Bernard H W
“Motivation is the influence of general pattern of activities indicating directing the behavior of the organism.
Johnson
“Motives is that condition of the organism which points it towards to practice of a given task and defines the satisfactory completion of the tasks”
Woodworth
The nature or motivation
Motivation is a state in a person or animal that drives behavior towards some goal. It has 3 aspects
a) A driving state with in the organism that is set in motion by bodily needs environmental stimuli or mental events such as thoughts and memories
b) The behavior aroused and memories
c) The goal towards which the behaviour is directed.
Classification of motivation
I) Thomson’s classification
M.K. Thomson has divided motivation into 2 simple classes
1. Natural Motives:-These are the motives found existing in every human being from the moment of birth. This include hunger, thirst, the need for security etc and it is through these that human life develops
2. Artificial motives:- These motives developing the individual as a result of the environment. Their basis is provided by the natural motives, but under the convert of socialization. Example of artificial motives is desire for the respect and status in society, formulation of social relationship etc.
II) Maslow’s classification
Maslow’s theory as well as classification of motives is out great importance in education. He has laid more emphasis on needs, argued that it is the intensity.
I. Physiological needs
II. Safety
III. Love and belongingness
IV. Esteem need
V. Self actualization
In maslow’s opinion, motives can be devided into 2 classes (i) Inborn motives:- These include hunger, thirst, safety, sex etc. (ii). Acquired motives:-These include motives generated by the environment. Maslow has further subdivided acquired motives into 2 categories 1). Social motives. 2) Individual motives.
Motivation and Education
Motivation is a subject of profound importance in education. The importance of motivation in education can be seen in the following manner
1. Development of believes, convictions., assumptions:-
The purpose of education is the development of conviction which can make the child a productive and responsible citizen. From this purpose, education is imparted to child. On the basis of a definite curriculum. Through motivation a sense of discipline can be developed in the child, beside the child’s character and personality can be moulded in the right pattern through proper motivation
2. Growth of interest and aptitude:-
Motivation can be used for developing interest and aptitude for any specific task or activity. If children lack motivation for performing a particular activity, that activity is usually not learnt at all. In the same way, if the children lack interest in the subjects which are a part of the curriculum, the knowledge of which are apart of the curriculum, the knowledge of those subjects will not be retained for long time, any teaching of this kind can bring about a high level of mental development in the child.
3. Guidance:-
In the present age, one of the main problem facing schools is that students are fund taking no interest in their school work. Through motivation students can be given proper guidance
4. Basis of learning:-
Motivation is the basis of learning. It is related to many aspects of personality.
5. Fulfillment of needs:-
It is desirable for the teacher to begin his teaching work only after taking into consideration the physical, mental, individual and social need of his students. It is important to ensure that students do not regard their lessons as impositions from above
6. Praise and condemnation:-
In teaching praise and condemnation have their own special place and it is for the teacher to use both of them as motivating factors.
Motivation is a force which generates the individual to go ahead to achieve his goal. This force is internal as well as external. Motivation can be given through developing needs, attitudes, interests, habits, emotional set, reward and punishment, competition, knowledge of progress, fear of failure, level of aspiration and creating a suitable environment. Learning gets impetus from motivation. Education is a process of learning and learning is the result of education process. A teacher can create many conditions to motivate the students for successful learning.
5. Describe how psycho analyst, behaviorist, cognitivist, explained motivation theory? State how a behaviourist and cognitivist would differ in the motivation technique in high school classes
“A class room is a social situation with a power structure, including relationship and adult child relationship. Hence most favorable motivational condition need to take all of these factors into account, recognizing that the teacher is both model and reinforcer and in way met fully understood and releaser or intrinsic motives”
Motivation
Although motivation is not the basis of learning. It imparts dynamism and activity to the process of learning. Motivation is what lies behind our behavior the reason we do, what we do. Motivation as a combination of forces which initiate direct and sustain behaviour toward a goal. Motivation is simply “The condition which increases the vigor of responses”
- Motivation is not the end by the means; it provides the way to the end of the goal
- Motivation is no the main by the complementary part of leaning
- Motivation makes clear the behaviour of the individual
The nature of motivation
- A driving state with in the organism that is set in motion by bodily needs environmental stimuli or mental events such as thoughts and memories
- The behaviour aroused and directed by this state
- The goal towards which the behaviour is directed
Theories of motivation
Psychologists have propounded many theories and propositions regarding motivation. Each one seek to elucidate the nature of motivation in its own manner
- Stimulus-response theory
This view propounded by Behaviuoral psychologists, is only modified from the theory of learning. According to this view the entire range of human behaviour can be explained as a response to physical stimulation. It holds that there is no evidence for inferring the presence o any motivation either in the conscious or the unconscious
But this theory represents a very narrow point of view which completely neglects many facts of human experience. Many responses do certainly occur as result of stimuli by this theory fails to explain adequately many responses or activities
- The Physiological theory
According to this theory, many changes continuously occur within the body. And for various reasons, reactions also continue to take place inside the body. Consequently, when some reaction occurs to any specific reaction. Some motivation is inherent in its origins
This theory is known as CMS (Central Motive State
- Self actualization theory
Abraham Maslow developed self actualization theory on the basis of humanistic theory. Maslow’s theory is based on hierarchy of need. Motivation is based on physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, the esteem needs and self actualization needs. This theory emphasized that motivation to work is rooted from physiological to self actualization needs.
- Need theory
This theory has been develop by Murray
- Theory of instinct
The proponents of this theory hold that human behaviour is activated and directed by innate or in born instincts. Willian McDougall propounded this theory. This theory appears to be inadequate because, even if instructive behaviour is accepted to be the basis of motivation, the theory fails to explain many facets of human behaviour.
- Psycho analytic theory
According to Freud, the propounder of this theory, human behaviour is inspired by the desires lying concealed in the unconscious and subconscious mind of the individual. Instincts make their contribution to the human behaviour also, but the prime movers are the unconscious desire. According to Freud a powerful role of unconscious motives in human behaviour.
- Lewin’s theory
According to Kurt Lewin, motivation is an element of higher importance in the process of learning. It derives its belief in motivation from empirical bases. It explains both motivation and learning in terms of bonds in learning, the dynamic nature of learning process, memory, analysis and elaboration, frustration, level of aspiration, determination etc…
In the class room situation we want to use….
We have already said that motivation is conscious effect on the part of teacher either to establish a motive, that is drive urge or desire in pupils so that learning goals will be attained or to link already existing motives with the learning goals.
Obviously, the teacher wants to know how he can discover whether his students have become willing to learn something towards which he has motivated them. The fact can be discovered through the following characteristics
Þ Eagerness
Þ Energy mobilization
Þ Consistency
Þ Achievement of goal and reduction of tension
Þ Concentration of attention
Methods of motivation
How effectively and powerfully motivation acts in a classroom situation is determined by many influencing factors. Motivation in the class is influenced by many factors. The main ones are as followers
1. Needs
2. Attitude
3. Interest
4. Habit
5. Emotional state
6. Reward and punishment
7. Competition
8. Knowledge of progress
9. Fear of failure
10. Level of aspiration
11. Seminars and conferences
12. School environment
Motivation and education
Motivation is a subject of profound importance in education. The child has to perform multifarious activities aimed an atmosphere of praise or blame, acceptance or rejection, and reward or punishment. The importance of motivation in education can be seen in the following manner:-
1) Development of belief, convictions, assumptions.
2) Growth of interest and aptitude
3) Guidance
4) Basis of learning
5) Will to learn
6) Fulfillment of needs
7) Praise and condemnation
Summary
Motivation is a force which generated the individual to go ahead to achieve his goal. This force is internal as well as external. These forces direct manifests and build the behaviour of an individual for getting his achievement.
Motivation is a rationale and mechanic, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour, mental set, drives, goal, relief, incentive etc are the basis of motivation.
6. from your acquaintance with the study of different kinds of intelligence tests, what conclusion will you draw regarding the nature of intelligence/
We can observe the intelligence of and individual only through the tests devised by the psychologists for the assessment of intelligence. Intelligence tests are of various kinds.
1. Intelligence test many be classifies on the basis of method of testing
On the basis of the method employed for testing, intelligence tests have been classifies in to two classes.
I) Individual tests
These tests are administered to one individual at a time. They include performance tests as well as test that require linguistic ability. Some examples of these are Stanford Binet Intelligence test, Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence test, Koh’s Block Design Test etc. These tests are particularly appropriate for testing individuals, but they are expensive and time consuming. Administration of such tests requires more expert training.
II) Group tests
In this category the tests are administered upon in large number of examinees simultaneously. The group intelligence test of the state bureau of psychology is an example. Such tests are more objective and less expensive compared to individual tests, they are less useful for solving problems of individuals. They have proved really useful for the purpose of educational and vocational guidance.
2. Classification based on the medium used.
In terms of medium used in the test, intelligence tests are devided into two categories.
I. Verbal tests
This denotes tests in which questions are asked orally or in written forms for which answers have to be given in oral or written language. These tests are not intended for, and cannot be used in the case of illiterates and small children etc.
II. Non verbal tests
These include tests that do not require the use of language, but could be manipulated using figures, pictures, blocks or even other objects. Examples of it are Pidgon’s non verbal tests and Ravens Progressive Matrixes. Their advantage is that they can be used for testing subjects who lack language ability.
Performance tests of intelligence
These tests measure through some sort of performances of the testee the ability to see relations and solve problems given in a concrete form. For measuring intelligence of persons with a language handicap arising out of deafness or speech defect or cultural variations, this type of tests are widely used. Obviously, it is a non verbal test.
1. The Pinter Pattern Scale:- This has been the first major attempt to develop a standardized series of performance tests. Items in the test were taken form the work of Segum from board. Healy Picture Completion test, Knox Form Board, Ship Test, Cube Test etc. The scale consists of fifteen subtests.
2. The Arthur’s point scale:- This scale has been developed by Grade Arthur By adopting a point scale than the Median Mental Age for the method of seeing. This consists of five tests. They are Knox cube, Seguin
3. Bhatia’s Performance Test:- Koh’s Block Design Test, Alexander’s Pass Along Test, Pattern Drawing Test, Immediate memory of Sounds and Picture Complexion Test are for subtests included in this battery.
4. Wechsler Bellerue Intelligence Scale (WBIS):- This scale published in 1939, was developed and standardized by David Wechsler of Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital
This test has three different scales and come into existence.
A. Wechsler Pre-School
B. Wechsler Intelligence scale for Children (WISC):- Designed for the school children in the age group of 6 to 16.
C. Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale:- It is an individual test which has the unique quality of being simultaneously a verbal as well as a performance scale. The scale consists of eleven subtests. Six sub tests make up the verbal scale and five other compromises the performance scale.
I). Test of Scales
1. Test of general Information
2. Test of General Comprehension
3. Test of Arithmetic Reasoning
4. Test of description between similarities
5. Test of digit span.
6. Test of Vocabulary
II). Test of Scale
7. Digit symbol test
8. Picture complexion test
9. Block Design test
10. Picture arrangement test
11. Object assembly test.
The scores on these sub tests are added together to assess the subject intelligence.
Culture-Specific, Culture free and Culture fair intelligence test.
1. Culture Specific Test:-
A culture specific intelligence test is one that contains items related to knowledge and experiences of a specific culture or sub culture and validated in terms of their accuracy in predicting educational, vocational and social competence within those specific cultures and sub cultures.
2. Culture free test:-
A culture free intelligence test is one that contains items free of cultural content and context. Such tests are prepared by eliminating items that are culturally loaded and hence the test scores are not influenced by language, acquired skills and experiences of any specific culture or sub culture. The first culture free test was prepared by Cattel in 1933. This test contains problem solving items that do not occur specially in any culture.
3. Culture fair test:- A culture fair intelligence test is one that contains items that are common to all cultures. Hence, the test scores do not favour people from any particular culture. Culture fair tests are language free and attempt to eliminate culturally determined values and attitudes.
Some of the common abilities measured by intelligence test:-
1. Numerical reasoning
2. Analogies
3. Classification
4. Spatial relations
5. Logical selection
6. Synonyms
7. Practical judgment
8. Verbal comprehension
9. Memory
10. Problem solving
Advantages of intelligence tests
1. Intelligence tests are used for the purpose of making selection of suitable candidates
for admission to courses that demand different levels of intelligence.
2. Intelligence tests help the teacher to classify students into homogeneous groups for
providing individualized instruction.
3. Scores obtained in intelligence tests can motivate individuals to reach higher levels in the ladder.
4. Intelligence tests help in revealing the potentialities of an individual and in this way make possible the prediction of one’s success in a particular field
5. Intelligence tests help to detect the exceptional children such as gifted, backward and mentally retarded. This in turn helps the teacher organize appropriate compensatory services.
6. Intelligence tests help in the diagnosis of problematic behaviour of the child.
7. Intelligence testing has been proved to be very useful in psychological, sociological and educational research
Drawbacks
1. Intelligence cannot be measured in the way a cardiologist measures heart beat or an occultist measures eyesight. No intelligence tests by it self or in combination with others can never measure the true psyche potential or mental functioning of an individual. At the most they can assess the I.Q rather than the real cognitive ability of an individual.
2. It is very difficult to find equal values of I.Q. with the help of different I.Q. tests.
3. No intelligence tests, including the most refined performance tests, can be claimed as culture free or culture fair tests.
4. In fact, intelligence tests are of little help in determining a child’s overall potentiality because they do not go beyond the subject’s cognitivity abilities. No conclusions can be drawn from these about one’s aspiration, motives, aptitudes, attitudes, interests, likes and dislikes, and personal choices etc.
5. The I.Q. scores of the tests are highly influenced by the conditions prevailing at the time the intelligence tests are administered. Physical conditions such as mental and physical fatigue and ailments seem to interfere with performance. Test anxiety is another factor, Emotional and psychological factors may also present obstacles.
It may be concluded that too much reliance can not be placed on the results of intelligence testing. These should not be accepted as the sole measure of the likelihood of success in school achievements, profession and future life. The result of achievement tests, interest inventory, attitude scale, motives measurement etc; should also be considered along with I.Q. scores while making any decision about the education, profession for future life of the subject
7. “Personality is a dynamic growing entity” What is meant by this statement? Discuss the factors influence personality development from birth to maturity?
Personality is a dynamic and continuously in the process of change and modification. It is the everything that a person has about him. It gives him all that is needed for his unique adjustment to his environment. The process of making adjustment is continuous. One has to struggle with the environmental as well as the inner forces throughout ones life. As a result, one has to modify and change ones personality patterns and this makes the nature of personality dynamic. Entity means the essence of a person.
“G.W.Alport studied nearly fifty views about personality and then he arrived at the following definition.
“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.
The words used are full of meaning. It is a dynamic organization its elements are pattered or organized in a unique way and this patterning directs the individuals activity; it is psychological mind and body function together to produce an individual personality; behaviour and thought are charecterists in that a particular pattern applies to one persona and to no their every individual is unique
I. Determinants of personality
1. Personal factors.
2. Environmental factors
1. Personal factors.
This includes
1. Physical structure of the individual
2. Emotional reaction of the individual
3. Attitudes of the individual
4. Interests of the individual
5. Motivation of the individual, and
6. Intellectual level of the individual
2. Environmental factors
This implies effect of social environment which comprise
1. Family
2. Culture of the group
HERIDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
The much mentioned’ heredity versus environment is misconception. We should talk of ‘heredity in the environment’. Both heredity and environment are essential for development. Hence any trait of the individual is the ‘product’ of heredity and environment. The individual does not equal heredity+environment but doesn’t equal heredity × environment. Heredity sets the probable biological limit, whereas environment determines the level up to which the development is possible. Every development is due to an interaction of heredity and environment.
Personality may be compared to a rectangle. Heredity makes the base while environment the attitude. A rectangle cannot exist without either of the two.
Personality =heredity × environment
Sometimes heredity plays a major role in the development of personality and sometimes environment. However, both play their roles. In case both the base i.e., heredity and attitude i.e., the environment are inferior, we shall have jacks and kalik heredity and environment as offspring’s.
The hereditarians
Many psychologists are of the view that the inborn nature is the chief factor in the development of the personality of an individual and it solely determines the possibilities to which child can be educated. They don’t fine any weightage on the influence of the environment. They argue that heredity and is the attitude base on which the edifice of the personality is to be raised. The teacher is the builder of the personality of the child and no builder can overlook the base. The teacher, therefore, must study the base and its limitations, before he ventures make construction/
Biologically heredity may be defined as the sum total of traits initially present in the fertilized ovum. The heredity factors which contribute the development of the individual are called genes. Genes are the minute structure occurring the nucleus of living cells.
The environmentalists and social heredity
The environmentalists give all credit to nurture. They are convinced that the personality of an individual may be developed to any level according to nurture.
The heredity of an individual is contained in the seed while the environment factors are physical and social stimuli, such as the sunlight, soil, temperature etc. and tradition, customs, rites, code of ethics, literature etc.
Social heredity should not be confused with biological heredity; they are born into a social one. If we look to the culture and civilization of any age and form a notion of the vast network of highly organized institutions and traditions, manners and customs, legal and moral codes, knowledge, technique and skill, art, literature, and religions ideals and values. We can very easily form a correct notion of social heredity. A child is the heir to all ages. Social heredity is a form of educational environment that affects more than a single generation.
8. Explain the concept of growth, development and maturation as differentiated from one another. Discuss their implications in teaching learning process.
Human life starts from a single fertilized cell. The constant interaction with the environment results in the growth and development of the innate capacities, abilities, and potentialities of the child. An individual starting from a fertilized egg turns into a full fledged human adult. In this turn over process he undergoes a cycle of changes brought about by the process of growth and development in various dimensions-physical, mental, social, emotional etc. Therefore in the wider sense both the term growth and development can be used for any change brought about by maturation and learning and essentially is the product of both heredity and environment.
Meaning and characteristics of development
The term development means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience. As Van Den Dacle has pointed out ‘development implies quantitative change’. This means that development does not consist merely of adding inches to ones height or of improving ability. Instead it is a complex process of integrating many structures and functions.
Principles of development
Þ Development follows a definite and predictable pattern
Þ All individual are different
Þ Each phase of development has characteristic behaviour
Þ Development is a product of interaction
Þ Development is a continuous process
Þ Development proceeds from general to specific
Þ Principle of integration:- Development involves a movement from the whole to the parts and from the parts to the whole
Þ Principles of inter action:- growth and development are interrelated
Þ Development is predictable
Þ Development is spiral and not linear
Þ Growth and development as a joint product of both heredity and environment
Growth and its characteristics
Crow and crow suggests that growth refers to structural and psychological changes. Growth is regarded as multiplication of cells. Growth has following characteristics
Þ Growth is not a continuous process. It stops with maturity
Þ It is cumulative in nature
Þ Rate of growth is not uniform
Þ Growth takes place at different rates for different parts of the body
Þ There is marked individual difference in growth
Þ Growth follows a definite sequence or pattern
Þ Growth is a complex process
Þ Growth is influenced by heredity and environment
Maturation
Maturation is the unfolding of the individuals inherent traits. In phylogenic functions which are common to the human race such as creeping, sitting and walking. Development comes from maturation. Learning in the form of training, is of little advantages although controlling the environment to reduce opportunities for practice may retard development. Maturation provides the raw material for leaning and determines the more general patterns and sequences of bahaviour.
Educational implication
Þ There are wide individual differences among the children with respect to their rate of growth and development. There fore we must pay attention to their individual pattern and growth rate while planning the course for their education and development
Þ Its knowledge helps us to know what to expect and when to expect from an individual child with respect to his physical, mental, social development etc. at different stages of development. The correct knowledge of the growth stages of a child helps the parents and teacher not to under or over estimate the future competency of their child
Þ It helps us to know the direction as well as general pattern of development. It guides us to locate the degree of abnormality in our children and students and to take like wise remedial steps.
Þ Principles of inter relation and inter dependence of the various aspects of growth and development helps us to aim for the harmonious growth and development of the personality of the child and warn us not to develop a particular aspects at the cost of one or the other.
Þ The knowledge of the uniformity of pattern with respect to growth and development makes it possible for the parents and teacher to plan ahead of time for the changes that will takes place in their children. Children will also get benefited. If they can be acquainted with these changes before hand.
Þ The knowledge that heredity and environment both play a joint role in the profess of growth and development helps us to pay sufficient attention over the environment helps us to pay sufficient attention over the environment condition in upbringing the children.
9. What do you understand by schools of psychology? Briefly discuss the major contributions of schools of psychology to development of educational psychology
The word ‘psychology’ has originated from two Greek words psyche and logos which mean soul and science respectively. Thus originally psychology was considered as the science of soul. Subsequently the meaning of psychology has undergone many changes from time to time. It came to be described as the science of mind, the science of consciousness and the science of behaviour. According to Crow and Crow: ‘psychology is the study of human behavior and human relationships’. To skinner psychology is the science of behaviour and experience.
Psychology owes its origin t philosophy to birth a number of school or system of psychology such as structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, psycho analysis. The emergence of these systems or school of thought not only influenced the development of various trends and approaches for assessment of behaviour but also affected the processes and products of education.
Structuralism
Psychology as an independent discipline, free from mother field philosophy is only a little over one hundred and fifty years old. Its revolution into scientific discipline is largely due to Wilhelm Wundt. He was a Germen psychologist and a professor of philosophy at the University of Leipzig
Wundt conducted experiments related to conscious experience. By this he meant thoughts, feelings, sensations perceptions and ideas that are immediate and unbiased by time. He used introspection- self observation as the method for collecting information.
This school of psychology could not flourish much as introspection was found to be not a very valid to obtain scientific information. But with the work of Wundt the foundations of scientific psychology were truly laid
Merits of structuralism and its contributions to education
1) Structuralism helped in establishing psychology as an independent and organized discipline by separate it from philosophy and metaphysics.
2) It provided introspection as a method of studying behaviour. Introspection is the only suitable technique that can be employed in extracting such reports. Consequently studies in educational psychology can be benefit from the use of this method.
3) Structuralism is credited with having taken the initiative in establishing the first psychologic laboratory and employing the technique of systematic observation of the activities of mind. It has resulted in making psychology a subject of scientific study and experimentation.
Functionalism
Functionalists emphasized that merely knowing about the structure or composition of mind is of little value as compared to its activities and functions William James (1842-1914), the father of psychology in U.S.A.
James wording in the opening line of his book ‘Principles of psychology’. “Psychology is the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and science of mental life. Both of their condition”. James described as a mental life as a continuous and flowing unity, a streams
Merits of functionalism and its contributions to education
1) It laid emphasis on functionablity of the contents of curriculum by advocating that only those things should be taught to be the children which they could apply in every day life.
2) This system widened scope of psychology by developing a vicinity of new method beyond introspection for studying behaviour mainly based on scientific inquiry, systematic data collection and objective interpretation and by including in its sphere the study of many useful topics not covered by structuralism.
3) Functionalism opened the way for the study of psychology in terms of the adjustment of the organism to its environment. The study and problems of the individual, normal as well as abnormal, were incorporated in the subject matter of psychology and educational psychology
Behaviourism
In 1913 John Watson, an American psychologist began emphasizing the study of bahaviour in contrast to the study of structure and functions of the mind. Thus he broke away both from structuralism and functionalism and propagated that the study of mental states consciousness is futile consciousness cannot be explained, located and measured.
Watson rejected introspection is the method of psychology and instead focused only on those things can be observed and objectively recorded. A thought cannot be gauged but the behaviour that results from the thought can be observed and judged. Thus Watson founded a school of psychology which was named as behaviourism.
Merits of behaviourism and its contributions to education
1) The approach dealing with abnormal and mental sick person as well as delinquent, maladjusted backward and problem children was also drastically changed on account of the experimental findings of the behaviorists
2) Since behavioursits did not believe in entitities like the ‘mind’ and the mind body problem, the mental approach to behaviour was altogether discarded. As a result all concept related to the doctrine of mentalism like sensation, emotion, perception were dropped from psychology and education texts, giving way to new concepts like stimulus, response, habits learning and conditioning.
3) Behaviourism helped. In extending the scope of education psychology to include the study of animals as away to lean more about human nature
4) Behaviourism highlighted the role of motivation and definition of the aims and purpose in leaning and shaping of behavior.
Gestalt Psychology
Max Wertheimer, Koffka and Kohler were three German psychologists who criticized structuralism fro m another points views than Watson’s. According to these psychologists who are also known as Gestalts mental life cannot be divided in to elements.
“Gestalt” is a German word, the nearest English translation of which is configuration or more simply. Therefore, Gestalt psychologist is opposed to the atomistic and molecular approach to behaviour. According to it, and individual perceives the things as a whole and not as a mere collection of its constituents on elements. To a Gestalt psychologists, the menaning of sensation or perception are always involves a problem of organization. Gestalts also projected the mechanistic approach to behaviour as advocated by the behaviorists through a simple stimulus response connection. They asserted that a sort of organization definitely exists between the stimulus and response which helps in forming a new gestalt or an organized whole. For example, when one looks at a tree what one sees is a tree. The gestalts further claim that when the components of thing are brought together by the mind something new may emerge, reinforcing the statement. The whole is different from the sum of its parts. As a result, human behaviour is characterized as an intelligent behaviour rather than a simple stimulus response mechanism.
Merits of Gestalt psychology and its contributions to education
1. Gestalts laid great emphasis on the role of motivation and definite goals and purposes in any type of learning. This has resulted in providing a central role to motivation in any scheme of learning and education. The emphasis on setting clear cut objectives, defining them in definite behavioral terms and linking education with the needs and motives of the learner may be said to be some of the great contribution of psychology.
2. Gestaltism has a notable feature that it makes the task of perception, learning and problem solving an intelligent task rather than a piecemeal molecular function on a mere stimulus response mechanical process. It has provided a scientist and progressive method of problem solving based on the cognitive abilities of the learners.
3. Gestaltism has necessitated research in the field of organizational climate, institutional planning, group dynamic etc. for organizing the factors in the environment of the learners in to a meaningful whole so as to put in the best efforts for managing the affairs of education and welfare of the individuals.
School of psycho analysis
Psycho analysis as a system on school of psychology was the brain child of Sigmund Freud, a Venice
Humanist psychology
This new school of psychology reflects in the recent trends of humanism in psychology. Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollow May, Arthur, combs Gordon, Allport etc. It gives more value to human being by not considering him merely as sophisticated machine, victim of conflict between the ego and the Id.
10. Thurston’s and Thorndike’s theories of nature of intelligence?
Philsophists and psychologists developed various theories as regards the nature of intelligence. Thurston and Thorndike is the most prominent psychologist. They introduced this view regarding the theory of intelligence
Thurston’s group factor theory
Louis L Thurston, an American psychologist. He was of the view that intelligence could not be regarded as a unitary thing. He concluded that there is no one general factor ‘G’. He proposed that intelligence consists of a number of primary abilities which different people have in varying carious tests. Using a method of factor analysis that was suitable for analyzing many factor analysis that was suitable for analyzing many factor analysis that was suitable for analyzing many factors at once centroid method. He identified the following factors as primary mental abilities
1) Numeral ability
The ability to calculate or which is usually known as mathematical ability.
2) Verbal fluency
This is the ability to deal with relationship expressed in words. It also includes the ability in the use of words.
3) Verbal comprehension
This refers to one’s vocabulary or the knowledge of words and their meanings.
4) Rote memory
This is the ability to memorise verbal materials as measured by the usual methods of recall and recognition
5) Perceptual speed
The ability finds out quickly similarities and differences in groups of designs
6) Spatial relations
This deals with one’s ability to find out relationship among objects in space by quickly visualizing the three dimensional factor or space
7) Inductive reasoning
This is the ability which is usually dealt with in logic while examining a series of facts of data to find out a general principle running through them.
8) Deductive reasoning
This is also an ability which is commonly dealt with in logic. This deals with one’s ability to apply a given general principle to a particular situation.
Multi factor theory – E.L. Thorndike
Multifactor theory of intelligence developed by E.L. Thorndike, an American Psychologist. He was an associationist who opposed the theory of general intelligence. He proposed that these are specific stimuli and specific responses. Intelligence is nothing more than a convenient name for an almost infinite number of actual or potential specific connections between these stimuli and responses. Differences of intelligence among people are due to the number of connections in the neurological system. According to this theory there no general intelligence. Thorndike theory is atomistic theory of intelligence. He distinguished four attributes of intelligence.
a) Level: - This attribute refers to the difficulty of task that can be solved. If we think of all tasks to test items arranged in sequential order of increasing difficulty then the height that we can attain in this ladder of difficulty determinants our levels or attitude of intelligence level is the important factor of intellect, but we cannot measure it alone.
b) Range: - Range or width refers to the number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty that we can solve. Theoretically, an individual, possessing a given level of intelligence should be able to solve the whole range or task at that level. Range of intellectual growth is determined not only by level but also bridth of experience and opportunity to learn. In intelligence tests, range is represented items of equal difficulty. We cannot measure attitude without range or width.
a) Area: - Areas in test means the total number of situations at each levels to which the individual is able to respond. Area is a summation of all the ranges at each level of intelligence processed by an individual. It is in general highly correlated with attitude level.
b) Speed: - This is the rapidity with which can respond to test items speed and attitude are positively correlated.
Every intelligence test consist those four attributes. When we test a person, we give him certain number of tasks (area) and these tasks vary in difficulty (attitude). There is certain number of items at each level of difficulty (range) and they are responded in a given time (speed). Emphasis on the aspect of these attributes varies from test to test
11. What are the methods of study of educational psychology? How do they differ from one another in terms of purposes and modes of operation?
Psychology is termed a scientific study of behaviour. For that study it takes the help of various methods. All that methods have their own strengths and weaknesses and possess some unique characteristics which make them highly specific in a particular situation. A wise investigator should have a deep idea in to the nature of his subject, his problems the environmental surroundings and the resources at hand and accordingly select a proper method or methods to keep him as a scientific and objective as possible for deriving the best possible results from his study.
The most common methods of study Educational psychology as follows.
Observation method
Observation method consists of the perception of an individual’s behaviour under natural conditions by the other individuals and the interpretation and analysis of this perceived behaviour by them. By this method we can infer the mental processes of other persons through the observation of their external behaviour. It is an indirect approach. This method is economical, natural as well as flexible. It occupies a leading role in the study of human behaviour.
This method cannot be termed as sufficiently objective, reliable and valid. i.e., in cases of hypocrisy the method of observation proves a failure in judging the true nature of the individual concerned. Subjectivity of the investigator also affects the result of observation. Another important limitation is to establish the proper cause and effect relationship of the phenomena.
Experimental method
Experimental method is considered as a most scientific and objective method for studying bahaviour. Here we try to study the cause and effect relationship regarding the nature of human behaviour by performing experiments i.e., the objective observations under rigidly controlled laboratory like conditions. The key factor to this method is the controlling of conditions or variables. There are 3 types of variables – independent, dependent and intervening. Independent variable stands for the cause and dependent for the effect of that cause. The other conditions or influence those cause and effect relationships are called intervening variables. In an experiment all such variables are needed to be controlled.
Clinical Case Study
Clinical case study method helps in the diagnosis and treatment of the problem or exceptional behaviour of an individual. Diagnosis may be carried out through an adequate physical check up, building up a comprehensive history, arranging clinical interview, using relevant tests and measuring devices and observing the clients behaviour in natural surroundings. Treatment is usually of two kinds
1. Modifying the environmental forces
2. Modifying the client’s attitude to help him adjust to his environment
Interview
It is defined as a technique or method for the investigation of behaviour by getting information directly from the subject about his behaviour in face to face contact or relationship. It needs to establish a proper rapport, pre-planning in terms of the set objectives, questions asked, recording of the responses and proper analysis or interpretation of the recorded responses. Interview proves quite beneficial in terms of getting cent per cent answers to the questions asked and getting most confidential information on the spot. How ever, it suffers from the subjective bias of the interviewer and possibility of hiding so many things of one’s behaviour on the part of the individual concerned. It also proves too costly to arrange for the interview for the investigation of the individual’s behaviour.
A comparison of various methods
Though observation method has so many advantages, there some disadvantages also. That we have discussed. Being an M Ed student we must know about the quantitative reaches. Experiment method can be termed as a quantitative one. It has so many limitations. The dynamic nature of human behaviour may affect the result. This method is costly and time consuming one.
Clinical approach is an art as well as a science, and technology which means that every body cannot treat every patient and it derives pleasure I making meaning healthier and better. Diagnosis is the major, step for this approach.
Interview method is relatively a flexible tool. It permits explanation, adjustment and variations according to the situation and thus proves one of the essential and important tools for the investigation of behaviour. It has some limitations. It is often held in artificial situation. It suffers from the subjective bias of the interviewer; it needs a well trained competent interviewer. It is costly in terms of the labour, time and money.
Conclusion
The scientific method of psychology can be deeply study the above methods. Every method has merits and demerits. So we should choose the best for our study purpose.
12. Define personality? What measure would you adopt to measure the personality of a teacher?
The term personality has been defined differently by different psychologists.
“Personality is the sum total of all the biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, aptitudes and instincts of the individual and the acquired disposition and tendencies”. –Morton Prince
“Personality is the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observations over a long enough period f time to give reliable information” –Watson
“Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation”-Cattell
In view of the foregoing definitions regarding its characteristics and scope, as a practical definition, it may be said that, “personality is a complex blend of a constantly evolving and changing pattern of one’s unique behaviour, emerged as a result of one’s interaction with one’s environment and directed towards some specific ends”.
Psychology employs a number of methods by which it measure personality, eg:- situation test, psycho analytic test and projective method, interview and questionnaire and rating method have their own importance.
We can measure the personality of teacher with the help of various methods of personality measurements. The following are the major method of personality measurement.
1. Case history method
In this method, as the name obviously indicated, the facts concerning the life of the subject are collected. This case history supplied all the large and small facts related to his environment and heredity. This method can be used to study both normal and abnormal people’s personalities but it needs very experimental examiners.
2. Interview method
The interview method is the most normal of all the method for the study of personality. It is the method widely used in the selection of people for government services. In this subject and the examiner sit facing each other while the former answers question asked by the latter.
3. Questionnaire method
Questionnaire has been used extensively in the investigation of personality. The name suggests that it is the list of selected questions; the answers to which throw light upon the peculiarities of personality. Questionnaires are used to gain knowledge of traits like self confidence, sociability etc.
4. Performance method
The performance method was conceived by May and itartahorne, in this method the subject is given a variety of specific jobs to be performed and the subtle quality of his personality examined.
5. Rating method
Another method of measuring personality is the rating method, in which roughly the work is done in two ways. One, the subject is asked to answer questions related to traits of personality. The answers which the subject offers or the answers which he selects indicate hid personality.
6. Situation test
As usual, the name suggests the nature of the method. In it, the subject is placed in some specific situations and the traits of his personality are ascertained. Actually it resembles the performance method; the difference lying in the fact that in this case the person is placed in a situation while in the performance method he is given some work to do. Most psychologists have identified the two together, rendering separate discussion indispensable.
7. Projective techniques
The most famous and popular of all the methods for the investigation of personality is the projective method. Its name suffers the fact that it is founded upon their element of projection. Projection means the observation of some specific thing in something or action; according to one’s personality and mental state.
Many peculiarities of the personality are investigated by an analysis of this projection and a comparison of it with the projections effected by others.
Some common projective techniques are following
a) Rorschach ink blot test
This test was conceived by Swiss scientist Hermann Rorschach. He used 10 original inkblot cards which are still in use today. There is no picture made in these blots. Five of these are black, two black and red and other three multicolored. To investigate personality, they are exhibited before the subject one after the other and he is asked to describe everything he sees in the blot. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These cards are shown to the subject for a second time and he is asked to point out the location, of whatever he had seen on the blot. In order to establish the meaning of the subject’s reaction to the blots, the psychologist analyses the location, deciding factors and the subject.
Besides the above analysis, facts like the fine taken by the subject to react to the whole blot, the number of activities which he did and whether he did them normally or not, are also noted observed. All these things tend to help in the analysis and investigation of the unconscious of the subject. But maximum efforts must need to make this test scientific.
b) Murray
The founder of this test, Murray
Word Association Test, Picture Association Test, Dramatic Production Test, Man Drawing Test etc are other projective tools which are not so important as to need description.
13. What are the various causes of behavioural problem I children. As a teacher a child with a special problem. Illustrate with an example.
The term “problem” can be described as something that is perplexing and requires a solution. Behavioural problems are the problems which need problematic behaviours are those that are perplexing and trouble some and that call for a solution.
Of all living organism in the world, humans have complex and diverse behaviour. Human behaviour is characterized by the complexity and diversity since it stems from multiple influences and their continuous interactions.
Causes of behavioural problems
Behavioural problems are nothing but the manifestation of improper/abnormal cognitive and affective functioning. They are the result of interactions among variables such as biological structure and function, inheritance, cognition, social emotional factors, family, peers, social class, culture and situational settings.
Behavioural problems are also referred to by various labels such as behavioural disturbances, behavioural dysfunction’s, behavioural problems, psychological problems, abnormal behaviour, maladaptive behaviour, impairments, deficiencies, deficits and psycho pathology. Guidelines for identifying or diagnosing behavioural disorders are relatively based on making decision so f what or what is not problematic.
Behavioural problems are often viewed as an ‘abnormality’. Generally, it is believed that any deviation of behaviour from the expected standard or norm is harmful in some way to the individual and results in disorder. Behaviour problems have also been defined as a failure of function adequately towards achieving some sense of personal well being and making some contribution larger social group.
Judgment about behaviour calls for the developmental norms also. If a three year old baby is notable to walk or to sit without support, it normally gives rise to concern. Similarly children sometimes act their age but fail to progress. This is known as ‘regression’. I a child display fear in excessive number of situations and if it does not fade away with the passage of time, then ‘fearfulness’ becomes a problem.
Children display a variety of behavioural, emotional, social, learning and physical problems. The behavioural perspective of problem was set into notion by J.B. Watson (1913). The central concept of this perspective is that childhood disorders are learned in the same way that other behaviours are learned.
Models of treatment for behavioural problems
The perspective that a psycho pathologist adopts decides the style of treatment offered.
Parent training
It is generally agreed by the professionals that change in the child’s behaviour may be effected by producing changes in the way that the parents manage the child. It is only the parent’s perception, along with the child’s actual behaviour, that has led the child being referred for treatment. Parent training has led the child being referred for treatment. Parent training modes have been applied to a wide variety of childhood behavioural problems
Treatment in residential settings
When the behavioural problems of the children become very severe, residential treatment is considered to be the best mode of intervention. Residential treatment may be offered in group homes, child psychiatry units in medical hospitals, units in non medical settings, and juvenile homes. It is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of these treatment services.
Pharmacological treatment
The interventions offered for a variety of childhood behavioural problem include pharmacological treatment. Medications that affect mood, thought processes or overt behaviour are called ‘psychotropic’ or ‘psychoactive’. Treating behaviour problem by prescribing such medications is often referred to as ‘psychopharmacological treatment’.
Depression as a behavioural problem
Treatments for depressed children have been mostly adapted from the intervention to depressed adults. Treatment includes both pharmacological measures.
A professional with a behavioural or social learning perspective is expected to offer treatments that are action oriented and he/she focuses on present problems, assuming that treatment is an earning process governed by principles common to all learning situations. If the concerned behaviour problem is thought to be arising out of a combination of influences, a professional tends to employ several modes of treatment.
I. Indiviudal and group pathology
Psychotherapy aims to offer a typical one to one verbal experience. This is the most common mode of treatment for children. Treatment is also offered in groups. Whether the mode of treatment is in individual or in group format; psychotherapy views verbal forms as an ideal form of intervention, particularly with older children and adolescent. It is generally believed that the need to alter treatment procedure in accordance with the child’s cognitive as well as emotional level of development should be realized. Realization of this need has given rise to non verbal modes of treatment for very young children…
II. Play Therapy
A very common mode of behaviour therapy is play. Since play activities have much importance in the development of young children, play as a therapeutic vehicle has its own advantages. It remains a solution to deal with the children of lesser verbal abilities. Most practitioners have accepted the play as a means of communications. Emphasis over the inclusion of play in the treatment of children was first made by the therapist, Melanie Klein (1932) and cognitive behavioural measures. As a teacher I will focus on educating and modifying the child’s maladaptive cognitions like problematic attributions, excessively high standards, negative self monitoring and so on. Behavioural aspects of treatment aim at increasing pleasurable experiences, social skills and improving communication, conflict resolution and social problem solving skills.
14. Hull
In his theory Hull
Primary reinforcement tendered to strengthen certain behaviour through the satisfaction of basic biological needs, drives or drive stimuli. Secondary reinforcement is brought about by an originally neutral stimulus like money by association with a primary reinforcing agency.
According to Hull
Another concept in Hull Hull
Another concept elaborated by Hull
Reaction potential = S E r =sHr×D×V×K
Where sHr is the habit strength
D is the strength of the drive
V is the Power of intensity of a stimulus
K is the degree of the attractive (intensive) ness of popular reward.
Since all the four factors are multiplied in contributory towards the building of reaction potential. If any one had a value of zero, reaction potential would be zero.
In his theory of behaviour Hull
1. Reaction inhibition (Ir)
2. Conditional Inhibition (Slr)
Reaction inhibition caused by the internal physiological and biochemical nature of the individual
Conditional inhibition caused by the psychological and environmental factors. Both of these two types of inhibition work together in exercising the overall effect of reducing the probability of occurrence. They result in the effective reaction potential symbolized as SEr
SEr= (SHr×D×V×K)-Ir+Slr
i.e., S E r=Reaction potential-inhibition
In the course of his experiments Hull
He asserted that it happens on account of the variation brought about in the inhibitory potential of an individual from moment to moment depending on several internal and external factors. This continuously changing inhibitory potential was named as oscillation effect.
SEr= ((SHr×D×V×K)-I)-sOr
This momentary effective reaction potential is responsible for the occurrence of a learned response. Hull
- The value of momentary effective reaction potential must exceed a certain value collected reaction threshold. (SLr) in order to emit a learned response
- The probability of a learned response (P) is increased to the extent that the value of the MER potential is higher that the value of the reaction threshold.
- The greater the value SEr the shorter will be the latency.
- The larger value of the SEr increases the power of resistance for the extinction of a learned response.
- The magnitude of an emitted learned response termed as aptitude (A) is directly related to the size of the SEr.
15. Briefly describe the dynamics of personality development as viewed by Freud. Mention the class room implication of this theory.
Psycho analysis as a system or school of psychology was the brain child of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) a Venice
Life and death instincts
Freud believed in the role of instinct in driving human behaviour. He postulated two main instincts namely the life instinct and the death instinct, as the source of all the psyche energy available n man.
One’s life instinct is engaged in the service of one’s life and its main aims are survival and the propagation of the spices. It is manifested through sex and love. Freud gave the name ‘libido’ to the driving force of the life instinct and made it synonymous with the sex urge and sexuality of human beings. The libido believed in the pleasure principle, aroused from any of the organs in the body and through any function, as advocated by Freud, is ultimately sexual in nature, the sex urge or sex motive may be regarded as the dynamic force and centre of all human behaviour at all ages.
The concept of the other instinct, called the death instinct, related to the impulse for destruction, it is manifested through acts of aggression, guilty and even of suicide. Freud held that when one’s life instinct is not allowed to function or to govern one’s behaviour, the death instinct comes in to the picture for operationing behaviour. For example, when one is not permitted to seek sexual gratification or derive pleasure, one is bound to lose one’s balance, suffer frustration which may consequently lead to the destruction one’s self or of others.
Structure of the psyche or mind
Freud, while explaining the structure of the human psyche or mind, divided it in 2 different parts, first by arranging it in to three layers as the conscious, the sub conscious and the unconscious second by postulating three other components viz. ‘id’, ‘ego’ and ‘super ego’.
The concept of conscious, sub conscious and unconscious mind
Here we were to compare the human mind to an ocean, pond or a river, then the upper layer or the surface would represent the conscious mind the main bed would be identified with the subconscious, and the bottom would form the unconscious.
The conscious mind occupies one tenth of our total psyche or mental life, ideas thoughts and images also occur in it. The unconscious mind is the middle portion of the mind, which sores all type of information. In the middle bed or layer of the human mind there lie all experiences or knowledge which have been gained or learned by an individual through various types of experiences or training.
Below the subconscious mind lied the unconscious the most important part of the mind, it contains all the repressed wishes, Desires, feelings, drives and motives many of which relate to sex and aggression. Freud says, that we do and how we behave is always determined by the forces residing in our unconscious and not by the choices of conscious mind.
The concept of Id, Ego and Super Ego
Freud further invented three more concepts the Id, Ego and Super ego for explaining the structure of the psyche and used them in providing a two tier tripartite division of the psyche as may be understood diagrammatically as given under
The id represents the animal in man and is seated in the unconscious. It is the source of the mental energy and all instinctive energy of the individual. It knows no reality follows no rules and considers only the satisfaction of its own needs and drives. It operates according to the pleasure principle. It is quite selfish and unethical.
For the sake of welfare of the individual and of society, the blind id cannot be act at this time of ego and super ego comes in to play.
The super ego is the direct antithesis of Id and represents the ethical and moral aspects of psyche. Id it is also seated in the unconscious but it is not governed by man’s instinctive tendencies or primitive drives. It is idealistic in nature, and perfection is its goal, rather than pleasure seeking or destruction.
Ego acts as intermediate between three sets of force. It also acts a balancing role.
Infantile sexuality and psycho sexual development.
Sex is the life urge therefore, not only of adults but also of infants who manifest sexual desires by sucking the breast of their mother and feeling satisfied. Freud termed this as infantile sexuality. Growing with such need for sex gratification the individual’s psycho sexual developments said to pass thorough certain distinctive stages like the oral stage, the anal stage, and the phallic, latency and genital stage.
The flow of libido
Libido the life maintaining energy, the flow of this energy in terms of the satisfaction of sexual urge is normal and satisfactory. But this flow is repressed or blocked it ends not only in free floating anxiety but also gives birth to serve conflicts leading to mental illness and abnormal behaviour.
Psychoanalysis as a method of studying behaviour and therapy is said to involve steps like 1. Establishing rapport with the subject 2. Analysis of the behaviour of the subject to uncover the underlying causes of the abnormality by adopting techniques like free associations. 3. Synthesis for restructuring and restoring the lost balance of the psyche 4. Breaking the rapport in order to enable the patient to face the realities of life without the support of the analyst.
Anxiety, conflicts and disintegration of personality
Anxiety and conflicts lead an individual to develop in to an abnormal personality. Freud describes anxiety as a painful emotional experience representing a threat or danger to the individual concerned. Whereas in the in the state of fear the source of tension is known in case of anxiety one cannot relate to earlier traumatic experience. Very often it is the result of un discharged sexual impulses- a blocked up libido.
Blocking up or repression of the libido or sexual urge, according to Freud, does not end in free floating anxiety but also gives birth to serve conflicts leading to mental illness and abnormal behaviour. All conflicts in one way or the other represents clashes of the authority and rules of one’s id, ego and super ego. The ego plays a role of moderator. In case the super ego is too strong and dominates the ego of the individual, the anxiety and conflict may give birth to a psychotic personality but in case super ego is not so rigid, than the expression of the repressed libido may result in a less severe form of personality disintegration like neurosis or milder symptoms like headache, back ache, restless.
Class room implications of Freud theory
- In a class room it has given a good method for the study of children’s behaviour.
- It has highlighted the importance of good education and healthy environment in the class room by emphasizing the role of child hood experiences.
- Freud’s concept of the unconscious has helped in understanding the cause of maladaptive behaviour.
- His emphasis on the role of sex in one’s life has brought out the necessity of providing proper sex education to children
- Freud’s system of psycho analysis has called for the provision of proper extra curricular activities and suitable hobbies etc in the class room programmes for the release of repressed or blocked libidinal energy and pent up feelings.
16. Enumerate the components involved in creative thinking. Suggest an instruction strategy helpful to foster creativity in school children
Creativity is the ability to create something. Imagination is the main spring of creativity.
Imagination →Invention →Innovation→Creativity
Whatever is novel, unique, original and unconventional is known as creative.
Right hemisphere of our brain is creative in nature
Creativity is the ability to do things differently and to do think differently
J.P.Guilford speaks of two kinds of thinking namely convergent and divergent thinking.
J.P.Guilford identifies the following characteristics in creative thinking
1. Ability to change one’s approach to a problem
2. Coping with ideas that are both relevant and unusual
3. Going beyond the immediate situation
4. Redefining the problem or some part of it.
Creative ability consists of several abilities of divergent thinking. Divergent thinking stimulated a questioning frame of mind and discourages blind acceptance.
7 abilities of divergent thinking are
- fluency
- flexibility
- originality
- sensitiveness
- elaboration
- guessing ability
- redefinition ability
Characteristics of creativity
- creativity is universal
- creativity carries ego involvement
- creativity is innate as well as acquired
- it is the ability to produce a new or novel
- It is adventurous and open thinking
- creativity and achievement are correlated
- creativity and anxiety often go together
Methods to foster creativity among children
- Freedom to respond: - Parents and teachers often expect fixed response from children. Thus they kill the creativity of child. They should be given adequate freedom to respond to a situation
- Encouraging originality and flexibility:- Originality on the part of children in any form should be encouraged. If a child seeks to change the methods of learning a test or solving a problem, they should be encouraged to do so.
- removal of hesitation and fear:-
- Providing appropriate opportunities and atmosphere for creative expression:- A healthy atmosphere, favorable for creative thinking and expression is essential for the stimulation and nourishment of creativity among children
- Developing healthy habits among children:- Industriousness persistence, self reliance and self confidence are some of the qualities that are helpful in creative output. Children should therefore be helped to imbibe these qualities
- using the creative resources of the communities:- Children should be made to visit the centre of art, scientific and industrial creative work. This may stimulate and inspire them for creative work.
- avoidance of blocks to creative thinking:-Factors like conservation, faculty methods of teaching, unsympathetic treatment, fixed and rigid habits of work, anxiety and frustration, excessively high standards of achievement for low levels of work, over emphasis on school marks etc are block to creativity
- proper organization of the curriculum:- Learning experiences in the form of curricula should be so designed so as to foster creativity among children. For this purpose, the school curriculum should be organized primarily on the basis of concepts rather than facts.
- reform in the evaluation system:-Our education system is totally examination oriented and appropriate reform must, therefore be made in our evaluation system if creativity is to be nurtured. The emphasis on memorization, by rote, fixed and rigid single responses, and convergent thinking etc. which kills creativity of the children should be abandoned and a proper evaluation system should be adopted.
- use of special techniques for fostering creativity:- Researchers in the field of creativity have suggested special techniques and methods for fostering creativity among children
- brain storming
- use of teaching models
- use of gaming techniques
- Teaching by example:-Example is better than percept. Children are very imitative. The teachers and parents who themselves follow the beaten track and do not show any originality for fear of being wrong or never experience the excitement of creating or doing something new, fail to stimulate creativity among the children in their charge. The teachers and parents must therefore themselves develop the habit of creative thinking.
All these will be helpful to foster creativity in school children.
17. Outline the structure and development of personality as propounded by Allport. State briefly the techniques of assessing personality
Gordon W Allport was the first theorist who by rejecting the notion of relatively limited number of personality types and adopted the trait approach for the description of highly individualized personalities. He received gold medal in 1894. he mainly forces n the conscious determinants of human personality. He gave emphasis on rationality, unity of the personality, discontinues between normal and abnormal. He rejected materialistic approach. He completely concentrated on natural science approach.
He considered himself as a systematic pluralist. In 1966, he proposed a epistemological position in research for personality- known as heuristic realism.
According to him, distinction between structure and dynamics of personality is impossible. Personality structure is represented in terms of traits. At the same time the behaviour is motivated by these traits.
Traits according to Allport are the basic units of personality. Allport distinguished 3 types of traits namely
1. Cardinal traits
2. Secondary traits
3. Central traits
Cardinal traits are the primary traits so dominant in one’s personal disposition that the colour virtually every aspect of ones behaviour and attributes. These traits are found limited in number. E.g. If humoursness is the cardinal trait of a person, he will bring a sense of humour into almost all situations irrespective of its actual demands.
Central traits are typical to one. They are most common. They can be easily inferred from the behaviour. According to Allport, for knowing an individuals personality, we need to know 5 to 10 such central traits, e.g. honesty, kindness etc.
Cardinal traits are less common but more specific. These traits combined with a few central traits form the core of characteristic traits responsible for giving uniqueness to one’s personality.
Allport analyzed about 18000 terms taken from a dictionary that could be used by people to describe each other and they finally came up with a total 4541 psychological traits from describing human behaviour.
In this way Allport focused on these large numbers of behavioural traits to describe personality instead of explaing it like other developmental and psychological theorists.
To him, “personality” is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine the unique adjustment to its environment”.
He again redefined it in 1961
“Personality” is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine the characteristic behaviour and thoughts.
Allport’s theory of personality is known not only for its emphasis on traits but also for its stress on concepts like functional autonomy, individualized approach in the study of personality and the discontinuous nature of the development of personality etc.
Functional autonomy:- The concept of functional autonomy suggests that functions or means which once served a purpose may attain autonomy at a later stage. Though motives are goal oriented to begin with, they become functionally autonomous when the goals are achieved. Two types of functional autonomies are there
1. Preservative functional autonomy
2. Propriate functional autonomy
Proprium: - actual self or self hood. It includes all the facts about a person that make him unique. Propriate functions of personality are
1. bodily sense
2. self identity
3. self esteem
4. self extension
5. rational thinking
6. sense of self hood
7. self image
8. cognitive style
9. propriate striving
10. function of knowing
According to him, propriate functions are the vital functions of the personality. It is not innate. It develops in time.
According to him, there are 6 basic human values that guides our action. They are
1. Theoretical values
2. Political values
3. Social values
4. Religious values
5. Aesthetic values
6. Economical values
Allport also emphasized another important concept of the discrete and discontinuous nature of the development of personality. He mentioned 3 stages if growth and development of personality namely, - childhood, adolescence and adulthood personalities.
In this way Allport gave a new dimension to the explanation of human behaviour, personality, evolution of the behaviour and aspects of personality by taking traits as the basic units of behaviour.
Techniques of assessing personality
The methods used for the assessment of personality may be termed as a subjective, objective or projective.
1. Case history method
In this method, as the name obviously indicated, the facts concerning the life of the subject are collected. This case history supplied all the large and small facts related to his environment and heredity. This method can be used to study both normal and abnormal people’s personalities but it needs very experimental examiners.
2. Interview method
The interview method is the most normal of all the method for the study of personality. It is the method widely used in the selection of people for government services. In this subject and the examiner sit facing each other while the former answers question asked by the latter.
3. Questionnaire method
Questionnaire has been used extensively in the investigation of personality. The name suggests that it is the list of selected questions; the answers to which throw light upon the peculiarities of personality. Questionnaires are used to gain knowledge of traits like self confidence, sociability etc.
4. Performance method
The performance method was conceived by May and Itartahorne, in this method the subject is given a variety of specific jobs to be performed and the subtle quality of his personality examined.
5. Rating method
Another method of measuring personality is the rating method, in which roughly the work is done in two ways. One, the subject is asked to answer questions related to traits of personality. The answers which the subject offers or the answers which he selects indicate hid personality.
6. Situation test
As usual, the name suggests the nature of the method. In it, the subject is placed in some specific situations and the traits of his personality are ascertained. Actually it resembles the performance method; the difference lying in the fact that in this case the person is placed in a situation while in the performance method he is given some work to do. Most psychologists have identified the two together, rendering separate discussion indispensable.
7. Projective techniques
The most famous and popular of all the methods for the investigation of personality is the projective method. Its name suffers the fact that it is founded upon their element of projection. Projection means the observation of some specific thing in something or action; according to one’s personality and mental state.
Many peculiarities of the personality are investigated by an analysis of this projection and a comparison of it with the projections effected by others.
Some common projective techniques are following
a) Rorschach ink blot test
This test was conceived by Swiss scientist Hermann Rorschach. He used 10 original inkblot cards which are still in use today. There is no picture made in these blots. Five of these are black, two black and red and other three multicolored. To investigate personality, they are exhibited before the subject one after the other and he is asked to describe everything he sees in the blot. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These cards are shown to the subject for a second time and he is asked to point out the location, of whatever he had seen on the blot. In order to establish the meaning of the subject’s reaction to the blots, the psychologist analyses the location, deciding factors and the subject.
Besides the above analysis, facts like the fine taken by the subject to react to the whole blot, the number of activities which he did and whether he did them normally or not, are also noted observed. All these things tend to help in the analysis and investigation of the unconscious of the subject. But maximum efforts must need to make this test scientific.
b) Murray
The founder of this test, Murray
Word Association Test, Picture Association Test, Dramatic Production Test, Man Drawing Test etc are other projective tools which are not so important as to need description.
18. Describe how Piaget explains the process of cognitive development. Bring out the educational implications of Piaget’s ideas.
Piaget a Swiss biologist had profound interest in epistemology. Later he developed a keen interest in child and cognitive psychology. Piaget designed a proper frame work to understand the structure, functioning and development of the cognitive network of human mind. Like physical organs of the human body there are two aspects of the human mind. One is referred as cognitive structure and other as cognitive functioning.
The cognitive structure of infants is supposed to incorporate only those cognitive abilities or potentials which help them to do such acts such as look, reach out or grasp. Piaget named these abilities as schemas.
The various schemas with their contents thus form the basic structure of the human mind. How ever as a child grows with the interaction of physical and social environment, he is able to form different schemas resulting in changes and modification in his cognitive structure.
The cognitive development of a person. Lies in his constant interaction with an adaptation to his physical and social environment. The last of such adaptations carried out through the process of assimilation and accommodation. Piaget asserted that the process of assimilation or the accommodation helps the organism to adjust or maintain a harmonious relationship between himself and his environment. Thus adjustment mechanism was called by equilibration by Piaget.
According to Piaget, cognitive development is the result of continuous interaction between the organism and the environment. Piaget has divided cognitive development into five well defined stages. They are
- Sensory motor stage (0-2):- Piaget called the first stage of intellectual development the sensory motor stage because it is characterized by the absence of language and it is limited to direct sensory and motor interactions with the environment. At birth the infant exhibits a limited number of un coordinated reflexes such as sucking, looking, reaching, and grasping. The early sensor motor experiences of the child have a great bearing on the development of his later intellectual abilities. By the age of 8 months the infant is able to react the objects outside himself. He begins to realize that the objects around him are separate from himself and they have their independent and permanent existence.
- Pre operational stage (2-7):- During the stage objects gradually take on symbolic meanings. In this stage, the child begins to replace direct action in the form of sensory or motor exploration with symbols. This stage can be further sub divided into the pre conceptual phase and the intuitive phase.
- Concrete operational stage (7-11):- This is the stage when child develop the ability for logical thinking. The child now learns to deal with concepts and ideas that exist only in mutual terms. He begins to think in terms of a set of interrelated principles rather than singe bits of knowledge. The ability of reversibility which promote logical thinking.
- Formal operational stage (12-15):- The intellectual development and functioning takes a very sophisticated shape at this stage as the child learns to deal with abstraction by logical thinking. Actually he learns to utilize the tool symbolism as effectively as possible in the process of thought and problem solving. The child now begins to appreciate that some hypothetical problem can be solved mentally by applying same rules as would be applied to concrete problems.
Educational implications
- Piaget interpreted and defined intelligence in a practical way. From birth onwards, the individual has to struggle for survived and seek adjustment with his environment.
- Piaget’s theory has highlighted the importance of drives and motivation in the field of learning and development. It has utilized the concept of equilibration for this purpose by defining it as the continuous drive towards for this purpose by defining it as the continuous drive towards equilibrium or balance between the organism and its environment.
- Piaget’s theory provides valuable information and advice on curriculum planning and structuring the schemas of studies. Piaget’s theory may help by providing a suitable frame work of the learning experiences in view of the cognitive development of the children and the needs of society.
- The knowledge of Piaget’s theory may prove quite valuable to teachers and parents for making them aware of the nature of the thought processes of the children and a particular level of maturation.
- The major contribution of Piaget’s theory is its analysis and suggestion of the optimal conditions of an individuals learning and development by introducing the concept of assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium.
The main contributions of Piaget’s theory are its emphasis on the individualization of education. It has advocated the need of child centered education by saying that the educational experiences must build around the learner’s cognitive structure.
- Explain the developmental pattern during adolescence and bring out its educational implication
- What factors cause anxiety to an adolescent? In what ways, can teachers and parents help adolescents to overcome their social and emotional differences
Ans The term adolescent comes from the Latin word adoloscre meaning to grow or to grow to maturity. Period of adolescent is the most crucial period in the life of human beings. The adolescent is eager to interact with new experiences, to find new relation ship to examine resources of inner strength and fathom the strength of inner ability. The adolescent tries to have freedom to think and ser his own goals and discover means to achieve them. The adolescent wants to have more freedom to enjoy. It is necessary for the young person to have in a right manner and establish himself and obey the rules at home and outside.
Adolescent is still a formative stage of human life. Adolescents will show a great capacity for change. They will have flexibility. Adolescents, who are emotionally disturbed, also show capacity for growth and change. They are liable to modify themselves under congenial conditions of environment. The adolescent is by nature a rebel against the traditions and customs prevailing in his society. His rebellions instinct can be channeled to good use by the teacher who can help to develop a generation which hate all the bad tradition and rids society of them. Adolescents can be taught to rise above their narrow interests and comprehend the spirit of nationality, internationality and cosmic love.
In adolescence the individual should be given vocational guidance after his mental capacities, inclinations and interests have been examines. His education should conform to the vocation that he is going to pursue in the future so that he may not be misfit in any occupations but should rather be able to earn and comfortable living, establish a house hold and contribute actively to national development.
Development of self is an important phase of adolescence stage. Self is a very complicated concept. Physical and psychological growth in adoloscnt is influenced by many factors. Relative influence of various factors in development of physical and psychological attributes of adolescent stage of boys and girls. One of the important factors that affect the growth of adolescent’s physically and psychologically is parents. Parents are very important factor in the growth of adolescence. Affectionate and loving parents inculcate and emotional feeling of goodness in their children. Children under such conditions learn to be free, frank, honest, and candid such children learn to be spontaneous in their behavior.
Another important psychological feeling during adolescence is the existence of anxiety. There can be many causes for it. Adolescents seem to get upset by little things. They are disturbed by trivial events. Little unfriendliness of disapproval will disturb them. Anxiety in adolescents is attributed by jerild to 3 factors
- Stresses and uncertainties tied to human existence that affects the lives of all people.
- Conditions linked to the adolescent period of development and
- Difficulties associated with unresolved problem and conflicts in the adolescent’s life extending back into early childhood. The aforesaid factors play the respective role in generating anxiety among adolescents
Other factors, enumerated by other psychologists from time to time regarding the cause of anxiety are
a) Developmental predicaments among adolescents which are due to fast and quick growth in physical and mental aspects of the body
b) Problems of identification. Adolescents try to increased identification with heroes and other.
c) Increased enthusiasm for realism
The quality of home in which adolescents live may also affect their development. This development can have physical, emotional psychological and moral aspects. Social relationship of adolescents with people at home and outside house are important of them. Adolescents have to learn to gradually wean themselves away from parents and parental surrogates.
In every stage of social development of the child, education contributes much, but this education is not the literacy thrust upon the child through books and lectures. The real and incalculable factors that exert this influence are the extra curricular programs, the school atmosphere, rules of conduct in school, radio cinema, newspapers etc. Group camps almost invariably have a healthy influence upon the individuals’ social development or socialization. It helps form his character and develop social quality. He acquires good habits and developing many kinds of skill. In the informal atmosphere of the camp, individuals can meet and mix with greater freedom and informality so that their social education is set in emotion. In this manner, teachers and parents can co operative to create adequate facilities and opportunities for the healthy social development infants, children and adolescents
2. Briefly outline the theories of intelligence advanced by Guilford
Gardiner? Which of them do you prefer? Why?
or
There is no intelligent definition of intelligence. Discuss this statement in the
light of the theory of intelligence by Guilford
Ans Dr. J.P. Guilford developed and presented a well organized system of abilities called structure of intellect (SOI). These abilities, according to Guilford Guilford
The term intelligence can now be defined as “a systematic collection of abilities or functions processing information of different kinds in various forms”.
Let us consider the 3 dimensional cubical figures which represent the 3 factors of each ability and the carious categories involved in each dimension.
This model proposes that intelligence consists of 150 independent abilities that result from interaction of 5 types of content , 5 types of operation and 6 types of products. But in later it becomes 180 by splitting memory into retentive memory and association memory
Code for SOI categories
Operation
|
Content
|
Products
| |||
C
|
Cognition
|
V
|
Visual
|
U
|
Units
|
M
|
Memory
|
A
|
Auditory
|
C
|
Classes
|
D
|
Divergent thinking
|
S
|
Symbolic
|
R
|
relations
|
N
|
Convergent thinking
|
M
|
Semantic
|
S
|
System
|
E
|
Evaluation
|
B
|
Behavioral
|
T
|
Transformation
|
I
|
Implications
| ||||
I). Contents (The type of information involves)
a. Figural (Visual) :-The properties of stimuli we can experience through visual senses eg:- Color, size, shape, texture and other visual character of figure
b. Figural (Auditory):- The properties of stimuli we can experience through the auditory senses. Eg:- Voice and sound
c. Symbolic:- Number, letter, symbols, designs
d. Semantic:- The meaning of words, ideas
e. Behavioral:- The actions and expression of people
II). Operation (The way of processing information)
a) Cognition:- Recognizing and discovering
b) Memory:- Retaining, and recalling the contents of thought
c) Divergent production:- Producing a variety of ideas or solutions to a problem.
d) Convergent Production:- Producing a single best solution to a problem.
e) Evaluation:- Taking decision about the nature of the intellectual contents or gathered information. Whether it is positive or negative, good or bad etc.
III). Products (the results obtained through operations)
a) Units: - The individual pieces of information related to each other on the basis of some common characteristic involving a higher order concept.
b) Relations:- A connection between concepts
c) Systems:- A ordering or classification of relations.
d) Transformation:- Altering or restructuring intellectual contents.
e) Implication:- Making inferences from separate pieces of information
In this way according to Guilford
Gardiner’s theory of multiple intelligence
During the year 1983 Howard Gardiner advocated a new theory namely ‘Multiple intelligence’. Gardiner’s theory of multiple intelligence suggests that there are 8 kinds of human abilities. And theory formed in 1999, through his work, ‘multiple intelligence for the 21 st century’, he further modified his theory. He introduced 11 types of intelligence. According to him each person has a unique profile of this intelligence with different degrees of strength in some areas and weakness in others. The theory implies that traditional school education is likely to neglect a large portion of human abilities and that students considered as slow learners, low achievers etc by conventional academic measures.
The quote Gardiner: “Intelligence is the ability to fine and solve problem in create products of value in ones own culture”
The 11 types of intelligences presented by Gardiner in his theory of multiple intelligence are as follows
I. Verbal or linguistic intelligence
It is the capacity to use words both oral and written appropriately and effectively in time. Though there is an inborn capacity of language ability in every child, the effectiveness differs from person to person
Teachers should give emphasis to this aspect while thy plan and execute their teaching learning activities.
Some such tasks are
1). creating many opportunities for interaction among student and between the teacher and student.
2). Preparing written material for debate, seminar and discussion etc
3). Writing articles, imagery news etc
4). Making report on a study tour, picnic etc
II) Logical or mathematical intelligence
The existence of this intelligence will enable an individual to think logically, to find out the interrelation between ideas and to carry our some abstract thinking. This forms the basis for some systematic and orderly actions. Finding ou the logic behind some patterns, experimentation and observation, scientific analysis, inductive and deductive reasoning.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Establishing some relationship among various and related aspects.
2. Observing the diversity of plants and animals and making clarifications
3. Calculating the average rainfall of a given region.
4. Solving the practical problems in study camp
III) Visual or spatial intelligence
The presence of this type of intelligence enabled the geographical discovers and travelers to find out directions and observing locations of some places. The ability to sense form, space, color, size and shape. It include the ability to represent visual, or special ideas.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1). Making posters, charts etc upon some selected themes like environmental protection,
A forestation and deforestation etc.
2). Slide shows and pictures.
3). Map projection, drawing map etc.
IV) Musical or rhythmic intelligence
It includes the ability for perceiving discriminating, transforming musical forms. The ability to sense rhythm, pitch and melody. This includes such skills as the ability to recognize simple songs, tempo and rhythm in simple melodies. We can help students develop musical intelligence by using tape recorder for listening singing along and learning songs.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Reciting and appreciating poems, songs, light music etc.
2. Presenting such songs in chorus
V) Bodily or kinesthetic intelligence
It refers to the ability of an individual for keeping normally, increasing speed etc related to the physical and motor movements of his body. Construction of something, imitation, dramatization, using gestures and body language, excellence in games, play activities, experiments, dancing, swimming etc. Which need physical movements also involve this intelligence
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Conducting activities like nature study camp, mountaineering, swimming and sports
and games competition
2. Organizing musical dramas
3. Conducting dance programmes
VI) Inter personal intelligence
The ability to understand our self – our strength, weakness, moods, desires and intentions. Being a social animal, an individual has to interact with his fellow beings, understanding them properly and interpret the behavioral pattern. The intelligence that enables the individual to perform such tasks efficiently is qualifies as ‘inter personal’. Some politicians , cultural leader, social activists respond effectively to the public by feeling and evaluating their thoughts, emotions, likes and dislikes can be said to posses this type of intelligence
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Give opportunities for the group activities, sharing of experience and for involving in social issues and activities.
2. Follow co operative and collaborative learning strategies while dealing with the content.
3. Conduct debates and discussion day to day problem of society.
4. Conduct camp for developing
VII) Intra personal intelligence
The ability to understand another person’s moods, feelings, motivation and intentions. It denotes the ability of a person to analyse his own inner conflicts, problems and to solve these himself.
Strong will power, intrinsic motivation, senses of responsibility, self disciplines etc are some of the related characteristic of this type of intelligence
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Allow pupil to express freely and frankly.
2. Engage them in journal writing, reporting and in some imaginary writing.
3. Making sudden speeches and engaging in creative writings.
VIII) Naturalistic intelligence
It is revealed in the ability of an individual to observe nature keenly, identify the characteristics features of diverse plants and animals, to classify and categorize and to predict the changes in climate.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Sharing experience from nature
2. Conduct picnic, study tour, field trips etc to study forests, gardens and a variety of habitats
IX) Spiritual Intelligence
Intelligence deals with ability in taking part of religious and spiritual aspects. It deals with the spiritual religious practices of human community or civilization require the expression of these intelligence from the learner
X) Moral Intelligence
Moral intelligence expresses out in dealing with moral issues relating with right wrong, justice-injustice and good-bad etc. Moral intelligence become teaching when the morality and moral issues of the society are to be taught
XI) Existential intelligence
It indicates ability to survive in challenging situations. The national, international, socio-cultural political and economic challenges faced by the human beings when become a topic of study.
3. “Learning is learning to learn”. Discuss. Which are the types of experiences
help full for the concept of learning according to Bruner.
Learning to learning to learn. Infact it is learning to learn meaningfully
Teachers usually devote a large amount of their time in making their pupil learn information collected by others. But acquiring the collection of facts, principles and concepts of not enough. Need of the day is not only to attain mastery over factual information, but students must learn how to use the information they have attained. It is this concept which makes learning meaningful in a real sense.
Two famous cognitive psychologists, Jerome S Bruner and David
Ausubel, have given a convincing explanation of the issue of meaningful learning. Jerome Bruner stresses 2 points on learning.
Ausubel, have given a convincing explanation of the issue of meaningful learning. Jerome Bruner stresses 2 points on learning.
- Students should understand the structure of a body of knowledge rather than memorize the names, dates, places, rules and formulae as isolated fragments.
- They should also learn how to discover what they want to know. Hence it is the duty of the teacher to stress the structure of the field of study as the structure helps in understanding how fundamental ideas relate to one another. A grasp of the structure has a positive effect on understanding and problem solving capacity.
A particular subject may consist of a number of fundamental ideas which are inter-related. The inter-relationship of these ideas with one another is called the structure of the subject. Bruner suggested that when students are helped to grasp the structure of the field of study, their retention is better and thereby comprehension of principles is facilitated for their further application in a variety of situations. This further prepares the child to master more complex knowledge. That is how his learning becomes more and more meaningful.
Bruner further suggested a particular curriculum pattern called a spiral curriculum to promote meaningful learning. This lead us to know when and where children can grasp the meaning of fundamental ideas., like Piaget, Bruner believed that children of different ages represent the knowledge in different ways for example.
- A pre-schoolar thinks of the world in terms of actions. Bruner calls this the enactive mode of representation
- During child hood ideas are represented in terms of pictures or images, it is called the iconic mode of representation
- During adolescence ideas tend to be expressed in verbal form, formulae and symbols, it is called the symbolic mode of representation.
Bruner further states that children at tall ages can grasp the meaning of ideas if presented through their predominant mode or representation. In later years, the same ideas can be re-introduced with more complexity. This practice of re-teaching the same concept in a more complex form later, as the children move through inactive, iconic and symbolic modes of thought is termed as a spiral curriculum pattern by Bruner.
A very common illustration of this pattern is seen when we teach the concept of addition to children. To make clear the concept of 1+2=3, we first give the child one chocolate and then give him two more and ask him, how many chocolates do you have now? Thus, the concept of addition is taught through action. Concrete objects and actual actions make the concept clear to him. This is the enactive mode. Next stage is to use pictures or images. That is the iconic mode. Finally, the child can do various additions orally as soon as the numbers are given. This is the symbolic mode.
Bruner further suggests the approach of discovery learning which favors meaningful learning. According to him, when children are given an opportunity and practice in finding their own solutions to the problems, they develop problem solving skills and also gain confidence in the leaning process. They learn “how to learn” as they move further. As an example of this discovery approach, Bruner says ‘instead of making the 5th grade children memorize a set of facts from geography, give them blank outline maps which show the location of rivers, lakes, mountains, valleys, plain, etc. Ask the children to mark where major cities, rail routes and highways can be located with the help of their previous knowledge and reasoning’.
Criticism of the Discovery Approach
- It is not useful for primary class children allow achievers
- All discovery sessions may not be fruitful. Some may be waste of time.
- Students may become frustrated as only brighter ones may dominate the scene. This in turn may lead to jealousy, feeling of inferiority etc.
- Group discussion does not give equal chances of participation to all the students.
But this does not mean that discovery approach is not useful. It can be used by creating a relaxed atmosphere, by arranging the learning experiences properly, by structuring the discussion and by creating co-operating attitude in the class room.
4. What is Motivation? Quoting experimental studies explain its role in
Education process
Motivation is essential to the operation of organizations and class room activities. Although motivation is not the basis of learning it imparts dynamism and activity to the process of learning. Experimental studies have confirmed the view that the relations between learning and motivation are no direct. Even today, psychologists are faced with one major obstacle, where the relationship between learning and performance is due to motivation.
‘TO MOTIVATE MEANS TO GET THE STUDENT TO APPLY HIMSELF TO THE LEARNINAT AHAND”
“Motivation is to find those approaches that will make the child eager for the kind of learning the school endorses
Bernard H W
“Motivation is the influence of general pattern of activities indicating directing the behavior of the organism.
Johnson
“Motives is that condition of the organism which points it towards to practice of a given task and defines the satisfactory completion of the tasks”
Woodworth
The nature or motivation
Motivation is a state in a person or animal that drives behavior towards some goal. It has 3 aspects
a) A driving state with in the organism that is set in motion by bodily needs environmental stimuli or mental events such as thoughts and memories
b) The behavior aroused and memories
c) The goal towards which the behaviour is directed.
Classification of motivation
I) Thomson’s classification
M.K. Thomson has divided motivation into 2 simple classes
1. Natural Motives:-These are the motives found existing in every human being from the moment of birth. This include hunger, thirst, the need for security etc and it is through these that human life develops
2. Artificial motives:- These motives developing the individual as a result of the environment. Their basis is provided by the natural motives, but under the convert of socialization. Example of artificial motives is desire for the respect and status in society, formulation of social relationship etc.
II) Maslow’s classification
Maslow’s theory as well as classification of motives is out great importance in education. He has laid more emphasis on needs, argued that it is the intensity.
I. Physiological needs
II. Safety
III. Love and belongingness
IV. Esteem need
V. Self actualization
In maslow’s opinion, motives can be devided into 2 classes (i) Inborn motives:- These include hunger, thirst, safety, sex etc. (ii). Acquired motives:-These include motives generated by the environment. Maslow has further subdivided acquired motives into 2 categories 1). Social motives. 2) Individual motives.
Motivation and Education
Motivation is a subject of profound importance in education. The importance of motivation in education can be seen in the following manner
1. Development of believes, convictions., assumptions:-
The purpose of education is the development of conviction which can make the child a productive and responsible citizen. From this purpose, education is imparted to child. On the basis of a definite curriculum. Through motivation a sense of discipline can be developed in the child, beside the child’s character and personality can be moulded in the right pattern through proper motivation
2. Growth of interest and aptitude:-
Motivation can be used for developing interest and aptitude for any specific task or activity. If children lack motivation for performing a particular activity, that activity is usually not learnt at all. In the same way, if the children lack interest in the subjects which are a part of the curriculum, the knowledge of which are apart of the curriculum, the knowledge of those subjects will not be retained for long time, any teaching of this kind can bring about a high level of mental development in the child.
3. Guidance:-
In the present age, one of the main problem facing schools is that students are fund taking no interest in their school work. Through motivation students can be given proper guidance
4. Basis of learning:-
Motivation is the basis of learning. It is related to many aspects of personality.
5. Fulfillment of needs:-
It is desirable for the teacher to begin his teaching work only after taking into consideration the physical, mental, individual and social need of his students. It is important to ensure that students do not regard their lessons as impositions from above
6. Praise and condemnation:-
In teaching praise and condemnation have their own special place and it is for the teacher to use both of them as motivating factors.
Motivation is a force which generates the individual to go ahead to achieve his goal. This force is internal as well as external. Motivation can be given through developing needs, attitudes, interests, habits, emotional set, reward and punishment, competition, knowledge of progress, fear of failure, level of aspiration and creating a suitable environment. Learning gets impetus from motivation. Education is a process of learning and learning is the result of education process. A teacher can create many conditions to motivate the students for successful learning.
5. Describe how psycho analyst, behaviorist, cognitivist, explained motivation theory? State how a behaviourist and cognitivist would differ in the motivation technique in high school classes
“A class room is a social situation with a power structure, including relationship and adult child relationship. Hence most favorable motivational condition need to take all of these factors into account, recognizing that the teacher is both model and reinforcer and in way met fully understood and releaser or intrinsic motives”
Motivation
Although motivation is not the basis of learning. It imparts dynamism and activity to the process of learning. Motivation is what lies behind our behavior the reason we do, what we do. Motivation as a combination of forces which initiate direct and sustain behaviour toward a goal. Motivation is simply “The condition which increases the vigor of responses”
- Motivation is not the end by the means; it provides the way to the end of the goal
- Motivation is no the main by the complementary part of leaning
- Motivation makes clear the behaviour of the individual
The nature of motivation
- A driving state with in the organism that is set in motion by bodily needs environmental stimuli or mental events such as thoughts and memories
- The behaviour aroused and directed by this state
- The goal towards which the behaviour is directed
Theories of motivation
Psychologists have propounded many theories and propositions regarding motivation. Each one seek to elucidate the nature of motivation in its own manner
- Stimulus-response theory
This view propounded by Behaviuoral psychologists, is only modified from the theory of learning. According to this view the entire range of human behaviour can be explained as a response to physical stimulation. It holds that there is no evidence for inferring the presence o any motivation either in the conscious or the unconscious
But this theory represents a very narrow point of view which completely neglects many facts of human experience. Many responses do certainly occur as result of stimuli by this theory fails to explain adequately many responses or activities
- The Physiological theory
According to this theory, many changes continuously occur within the body. And for various reasons, reactions also continue to take place inside the body. Consequently, when some reaction occurs to any specific reaction. Some motivation is inherent in its origins
This theory is known as CMS (Central Motive State
- Self actualization theory
Abraham Maslow developed self actualization theory on the basis of humanistic theory. Maslow’s theory is based on hierarchy of need. Motivation is based on physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, the esteem needs and self actualization needs. This theory emphasized that motivation to work is rooted from physiological to self actualization needs.
- Need theory
This theory has been develop by Murray
- Theory of instinct
The proponents of this theory hold that human behaviour is activated and directed by innate or in born instincts. Willian McDougall propounded this theory. This theory appears to be inadequate because, even if instructive behaviour is accepted to be the basis of motivation, the theory fails to explain many facets of human behaviour.
- Psycho analytic theory
According to Freud, the propounder of this theory, human behaviour is inspired by the desires lying concealed in the unconscious and subconscious mind of the individual. Instincts make their contribution to the human behaviour also, but the prime movers are the unconscious desire. According to Freud a powerful role of unconscious motives in human behaviour.
- Lewin’s theory
According to Kurt Lewin, motivation is an element of higher importance in the process of learning. It derives its belief in motivation from empirical bases. It explains both motivation and learning in terms of bonds in learning, the dynamic nature of learning process, memory, analysis and elaboration, frustration, level of aspiration, determination etc…
In the class room situation we want to use….
We have already said that motivation is conscious effect on the part of teacher either to establish a motive, that is drive urge or desire in pupils so that learning goals will be attained or to link already existing motives with the learning goals.
Obviously, the teacher wants to know how he can discover whether his students have become willing to learn something towards which he has motivated them. The fact can be discovered through the following characteristics
Þ Eagerness
Þ Energy mobilization
Þ Consistency
Þ Achievement of goal and reduction of tension
Þ Concentration of attention
Methods of motivation
How effectively and powerfully motivation acts in a classroom situation is determined by many influencing factors. Motivation in the class is influenced by many factors. The main ones are as followers
1. Needs
2. Attitude
3. Interest
4. Habit
5. Emotional state
6. Reward and punishment
7. Competition
8. Knowledge of progress
9. Fear of failure
10. Level of aspiration
11. Seminars and conferences
12. School environment
Motivation and education
Motivation is a subject of profound importance in education. The child has to perform multifarious activities aimed an atmosphere of praise or blame, acceptance or rejection, and reward or punishment. The importance of motivation in education can be seen in the following manner:-
1) Development of belief, convictions, assumptions.
2) Growth of interest and aptitude
3) Guidance
4) Basis of learning
5) Will to learn
6) Fulfillment of needs
7) Praise and condemnation
Summary
Motivation is a force which generated the individual to go ahead to achieve his goal. This force is internal as well as external. These forces direct manifests and build the behaviour of an individual for getting his achievement.
Motivation is a rationale and mechanic, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour, mental set, drives, goal, relief, incentive etc are the basis of motivation.
6. from your acquaintance with the study of different kinds of intelligence tests, what conclusion will you draw regarding the nature of intelligence/
We can observe the intelligence of and individual only through the tests devised by the psychologists for the assessment of intelligence. Intelligence tests are of various kinds.
1. Intelligence test many be classifies on the basis of method of testing
On the basis of the method employed for testing, intelligence tests have been classifies in to two classes.
I) Individual tests
These tests are administered to one individual at a time. They include performance tests as well as test that require linguistic ability. Some examples of these are Stanford Binet Intelligence test, Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence test, Koh’s Block Design Test etc. These tests are particularly appropriate for testing individuals, but they are expensive and time consuming. Administration of such tests requires more expert training.
II) Group tests
In this category the tests are administered upon in large number of examinees simultaneously. The group intelligence test of the state bureau of psychology is an example. Such tests are more objective and less expensive compared to individual tests, they are less useful for solving problems of individuals. They have proved really useful for the purpose of educational and vocational guidance.
2. Classification based on the medium used.
In terms of medium used in the test, intelligence tests are devided into two categories.
I. Verbal tests
This denotes tests in which questions are asked orally or in written forms for which answers have to be given in oral or written language. These tests are not intended for, and cannot be used in the case of illiterates and small children etc.
II. Non verbal tests
These include tests that do not require the use of language, but could be manipulated using figures, pictures, blocks or even other objects. Examples of it are Pidgon’s non verbal tests and Ravens Progressive Matrixes. Their advantage is that they can be used for testing subjects who lack language ability.
Performance tests of intelligence
These tests measure through some sort of performances of the testee the ability to see relations and solve problems given in a concrete form. For measuring intelligence of persons with a language handicap arising out of deafness or speech defect or cultural variations, this type of tests are widely used. Obviously, it is a non verbal test.
1. The Pinter Pattern Scale:- This has been the first major attempt to develop a standardized series of performance tests. Items in the test were taken form the work of Segum from board. Healy Picture Completion test, Knox Form Board, Ship Test, Cube Test etc. The scale consists of fifteen subtests.
2. The Arthur’s point scale:- This scale has been developed by Grade Arthur By adopting a point scale than the Median Mental Age for the method of seeing. This consists of five tests. They are Knox cube, Seguin
3. Bhatia’s Performance Test:- Koh’s Block Design Test, Alexander’s Pass Along Test, Pattern Drawing Test, Immediate memory of Sounds and Picture Complexion Test are for subtests included in this battery.
4. Wechsler Bellerue Intelligence Scale (WBIS):- This scale published in 1939, was developed and standardized by David Wechsler of Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital
This test has three different scales and come into existence.
A. Wechsler Pre-School
B. Wechsler Intelligence scale for Children (WISC):- Designed for the school children in the age group of 6 to 16.
C. Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale:- It is an individual test which has the unique quality of being simultaneously a verbal as well as a performance scale. The scale consists of eleven subtests. Six sub tests make up the verbal scale and five other compromises the performance scale.
I). Test of Scales
1. Test of general Information
2. Test of General Comprehension
3. Test of Arithmetic Reasoning
4. Test of description between similarities
5. Test of digit span.
6. Test of Vocabulary
II). Test of Scale
7. Digit symbol test
8. Picture complexion test
9. Block Design test
10. Picture arrangement test
11. Object assembly test.
The scores on these sub tests are added together to assess the subject intelligence.
Culture-Specific, Culture free and Culture fair intelligence test.
1. Culture Specific Test:-
A culture specific intelligence test is one that contains items related to knowledge and experiences of a specific culture or sub culture and validated in terms of their accuracy in predicting educational, vocational and social competence within those specific cultures and sub cultures.
2. Culture free test:-
A culture free intelligence test is one that contains items free of cultural content and context. Such tests are prepared by eliminating items that are culturally loaded and hence the test scores are not influenced by language, acquired skills and experiences of any specific culture or sub culture. The first culture free test was prepared by Cattel in 1933. This test contains problem solving items that do not occur specially in any culture.
3. Culture fair test:- A culture fair intelligence test is one that contains items that are common to all cultures. Hence, the test scores do not favour people from any particular culture. Culture fair tests are language free and attempt to eliminate culturally determined values and attitudes.
Some of the common abilities measured by intelligence test:-
1. Numerical reasoning
2. Analogies
3. Classification
4. Spatial relations
5. Logical selection
6. Synonyms
7. Practical judgment
8. Verbal comprehension
9. Memory
10. Problem solving
Advantages of intelligence tests
1. Intelligence tests are used for the purpose of making selection of suitable candidates
for admission to courses that demand different levels of intelligence.
2. Intelligence tests help the teacher to classify students into homogeneous groups for
providing individualized instruction.
3. Scores obtained in intelligence tests can motivate individuals to reach higher levels in the ladder.
4. Intelligence tests help in revealing the potentialities of an individual and in this way make possible the prediction of one’s success in a particular field
5. Intelligence tests help to detect the exceptional children such as gifted, backward and mentally retarded. This in turn helps the teacher organize appropriate compensatory services.
6. Intelligence tests help in the diagnosis of problematic behaviour of the child.
7. Intelligence testing has been proved to be very useful in psychological, sociological and educational research
Drawbacks
1. Intelligence cannot be measured in the way a cardiologist measures heart beat or an occultist measures eyesight. No intelligence tests by it self or in combination with others can never measure the true psyche potential or mental functioning of an individual. At the most they can assess the I.Q rather than the real cognitive ability of an individual.
2. It is very difficult to find equal values of I.Q. with the help of different I.Q. tests.
3. No intelligence tests, including the most refined performance tests, can be claimed as culture free or culture fair tests.
4. In fact, intelligence tests are of little help in determining a child’s overall potentiality because they do not go beyond the subject’s cognitivity abilities. No conclusions can be drawn from these about one’s aspiration, motives, aptitudes, attitudes, interests, likes and dislikes, and personal choices etc.
5. The I.Q. scores of the tests are highly influenced by the conditions prevailing at the time the intelligence tests are administered. Physical conditions such as mental and physical fatigue and ailments seem to interfere with performance. Test anxiety is another factor, Emotional and psychological factors may also present obstacles.
It may be concluded that too much reliance can not be placed on the results of intelligence testing. These should not be accepted as the sole measure of the likelihood of success in school achievements, profession and future life. The result of achievement tests, interest inventory, attitude scale, motives measurement etc; should also be considered along with I.Q. scores while making any decision about the education, profession for future life of the subject
7. “Personality is a dynamic growing entity” What is meant by this statement? Discuss the factors influence personality development from birth to maturity?
Personality is a dynamic and continuously in the process of change and modification. It is the everything that a person has about him. It gives him all that is needed for his unique adjustment to his environment. The process of making adjustment is continuous. One has to struggle with the environmental as well as the inner forces throughout ones life. As a result, one has to modify and change ones personality patterns and this makes the nature of personality dynamic. Entity means the essence of a person.
“G.W.Alport studied nearly fifty views about personality and then he arrived at the following definition.
“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.
The words used are full of meaning. It is a dynamic organization its elements are pattered or organized in a unique way and this patterning directs the individuals activity; it is psychological mind and body function together to produce an individual personality; behaviour and thought are charecterists in that a particular pattern applies to one persona and to no their every individual is unique
I. Determinants of personality
1. Personal factors.
2. Environmental factors
1. Personal factors.
This includes
1. Physical structure of the individual
2. Emotional reaction of the individual
3. Attitudes of the individual
4. Interests of the individual
5. Motivation of the individual, and
6. Intellectual level of the individual
2. Environmental factors
This implies effect of social environment which comprise
1. Family
2. Culture of the group
HERIDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
The much mentioned’ heredity versus environment is misconception. We should talk of ‘heredity in the environment’. Both heredity and environment are essential for development. Hence any trait of the individual is the ‘product’ of heredity and environment. The individual does not equal heredity+environment but doesn’t equal heredity × environment. Heredity sets the probable biological limit, whereas environment determines the level up to which the development is possible. Every development is due to an interaction of heredity and environment.
Personality may be compared to a rectangle. Heredity makes the base while environment the attitude. A rectangle cannot exist without either of the two.
Personality =heredity × environment
Sometimes heredity plays a major role in the development of personality and sometimes environment. However, both play their roles. In case both the base i.e., heredity and attitude i.e., the environment are inferior, we shall have jacks and kalik heredity and environment as offspring’s.
The hereditarians
Many psychologists are of the view that the inborn nature is the chief factor in the development of the personality of an individual and it solely determines the possibilities to which child can be educated. They don’t fine any weightage on the influence of the environment. They argue that heredity and is the attitude base on which the edifice of the personality is to be raised. The teacher is the builder of the personality of the child and no builder can overlook the base. The teacher, therefore, must study the base and its limitations, before he ventures make construction/
Biologically heredity may be defined as the sum total of traits initially present in the fertilized ovum. The heredity factors which contribute the development of the individual are called genes. Genes are the minute structure occurring the nucleus of living cells.
The environmentalists and social heredity
The environmentalists give all credit to nurture. They are convinced that the personality of an individual may be developed to any level according to nurture.
The heredity of an individual is contained in the seed while the environment factors are physical and social stimuli, such as the sunlight, soil, temperature etc. and tradition, customs, rites, code of ethics, literature etc.
Social heredity should not be confused with biological heredity; they are born into a social one. If we look to the culture and civilization of any age and form a notion of the vast network of highly organized institutions and traditions, manners and customs, legal and moral codes, knowledge, technique and skill, art, literature, and religions ideals and values. We can very easily form a correct notion of social heredity. A child is the heir to all ages. Social heredity is a form of educational environment that affects more than a single generation.
8. Explain the concept of growth, development and maturation as differentiated from one another. Discuss their implications in teaching learning process.
Human life starts from a single fertilized cell. The constant interaction with the environment results in the growth and development of the innate capacities, abilities, and potentialities of the child. An individual starting from a fertilized egg turns into a full fledged human adult. In this turn over process he undergoes a cycle of changes brought about by the process of growth and development in various dimensions-physical, mental, social, emotional etc. Therefore in the wider sense both the term growth and development can be used for any change brought about by maturation and learning and essentially is the product of both heredity and environment.
Meaning and characteristics of development
The term development means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience. As Van Den Dacle has pointed out ‘development implies quantitative change’. This means that development does not consist merely of adding inches to ones height or of improving ability. Instead it is a complex process of integrating many structures and functions.
Principles of development
Þ Development follows a definite and predictable pattern
Þ All individual are different
Þ Each phase of development has characteristic behaviour
Þ Development is a product of interaction
Þ Development is a continuous process
Þ Development proceeds from general to specific
Þ Principle of integration:- Development involves a movement from the whole to the parts and from the parts to the whole
Þ Principles of inter action:- growth and development are interrelated
Þ Development is predictable
Þ Development is spiral and not linear
Þ Growth and development as a joint product of both heredity and environment
Growth and its characteristics
Crow and crow suggests that growth refers to structural and psychological changes. Growth is regarded as multiplication of cells. Growth has following characteristics
Þ Growth is not a continuous process. It stops with maturity
Þ It is cumulative in nature
Þ Rate of growth is not uniform
Þ Growth takes place at different rates for different parts of the body
Þ There is marked individual difference in growth
Þ Growth follows a definite sequence or pattern
Þ Growth is a complex process
Þ Growth is influenced by heredity and environment
Maturation
Maturation is the unfolding of the individuals inherent traits. In phylogenic functions which are common to the human race such as creeping, sitting and walking. Development comes from maturation. Learning in the form of training, is of little advantages although controlling the environment to reduce opportunities for practice may retard development. Maturation provides the raw material for leaning and determines the more general patterns and sequences of bahaviour.
Educational implication
Þ There are wide individual differences among the children with respect to their rate of growth and development. There fore we must pay attention to their individual pattern and growth rate while planning the course for their education and development
Þ Its knowledge helps us to know what to expect and when to expect from an individual child with respect to his physical, mental, social development etc. at different stages of development. The correct knowledge of the growth stages of a child helps the parents and teacher not to under or over estimate the future competency of their child
Þ It helps us to know the direction as well as general pattern of development. It guides us to locate the degree of abnormality in our children and students and to take like wise remedial steps.
Þ Principles of inter relation and inter dependence of the various aspects of growth and development helps us to aim for the harmonious growth and development of the personality of the child and warn us not to develop a particular aspects at the cost of one or the other.
Þ The knowledge of the uniformity of pattern with respect to growth and development makes it possible for the parents and teacher to plan ahead of time for the changes that will takes place in their children. Children will also get benefited. If they can be acquainted with these changes before hand.
Þ The knowledge that heredity and environment both play a joint role in the profess of growth and development helps us to pay sufficient attention over the environment helps us to pay sufficient attention over the environment condition in upbringing the children.
9. What do you understand by schools of psychology? Briefly discuss the major contributions of schools of psychology to development of educational psychology
The word ‘psychology’ has originated from two Greek words psyche and logos which mean soul and science respectively. Thus originally psychology was considered as the science of soul. Subsequently the meaning of psychology has undergone many changes from time to time. It came to be described as the science of mind, the science of consciousness and the science of behaviour. According to Crow and Crow: ‘psychology is the study of human behavior and human relationships’. To skinner psychology is the science of behaviour and experience.
Psychology owes its origin t philosophy to birth a number of school or system of psychology such as structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, psycho analysis. The emergence of these systems or school of thought not only influenced the development of various trends and approaches for assessment of behaviour but also affected the processes and products of education.
Structuralism
Psychology as an independent discipline, free from mother field philosophy is only a little over one hundred and fifty years old. Its revolution into scientific discipline is largely due to Wilhelm Wundt. He was a Germen psychologist and a professor of philosophy at the University of Leipzig
Wundt conducted experiments related to conscious experience. By this he meant thoughts, feelings, sensations perceptions and ideas that are immediate and unbiased by time. He used introspection- self observation as the method for collecting information.
This school of psychology could not flourish much as introspection was found to be not a very valid to obtain scientific information. But with the work of Wundt the foundations of scientific psychology were truly laid
Merits of structuralism and its contributions to education
1) Structuralism helped in establishing psychology as an independent and organized discipline by separate it from philosophy and metaphysics.
2) It provided introspection as a method of studying behaviour. Introspection is the only suitable technique that can be employed in extracting such reports. Consequently studies in educational psychology can be benefit from the use of this method.
3) Structuralism is credited with having taken the initiative in establishing the first psychologic laboratory and employing the technique of systematic observation of the activities of mind. It has resulted in making psychology a subject of scientific study and experimentation.
Functionalism
Functionalists emphasized that merely knowing about the structure or composition of mind is of little value as compared to its activities and functions William James (1842-1914), the father of psychology in U.S.A.
James wording in the opening line of his book ‘Principles of psychology’. “Psychology is the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and science of mental life. Both of their condition”. James described as a mental life as a continuous and flowing unity, a streams
Merits of functionalism and its contributions to education
1) It laid emphasis on functionablity of the contents of curriculum by advocating that only those things should be taught to be the children which they could apply in every day life.
2) This system widened scope of psychology by developing a vicinity of new method beyond introspection for studying behaviour mainly based on scientific inquiry, systematic data collection and objective interpretation and by including in its sphere the study of many useful topics not covered by structuralism.
3) Functionalism opened the way for the study of psychology in terms of the adjustment of the organism to its environment. The study and problems of the individual, normal as well as abnormal, were incorporated in the subject matter of psychology and educational psychology
Behaviourism
In 1913 John Watson, an American psychologist began emphasizing the study of bahaviour in contrast to the study of structure and functions of the mind. Thus he broke away both from structuralism and functionalism and propagated that the study of mental states consciousness is futile consciousness cannot be explained, located and measured.
Watson rejected introspection is the method of psychology and instead focused only on those things can be observed and objectively recorded. A thought cannot be gauged but the behaviour that results from the thought can be observed and judged. Thus Watson founded a school of psychology which was named as behaviourism.
Merits of behaviourism and its contributions to education
1) The approach dealing with abnormal and mental sick person as well as delinquent, maladjusted backward and problem children was also drastically changed on account of the experimental findings of the behaviorists
2) Since behavioursits did not believe in entitities like the ‘mind’ and the mind body problem, the mental approach to behaviour was altogether discarded. As a result all concept related to the doctrine of mentalism like sensation, emotion, perception were dropped from psychology and education texts, giving way to new concepts like stimulus, response, habits learning and conditioning.
3) Behaviourism helped. In extending the scope of education psychology to include the study of animals as away to lean more about human nature
4) Behaviourism highlighted the role of motivation and definition of the aims and purpose in leaning and shaping of behavior.
Gestalt Psychology
Max Wertheimer, Koffka and Kohler were three German psychologists who criticized structuralism fro m another points views than Watson’s. According to these psychologists who are also known as Gestalts mental life cannot be divided in to elements.
“Gestalt” is a German word, the nearest English translation of which is configuration or more simply. Therefore, Gestalt psychologist is opposed to the atomistic and molecular approach to behaviour. According to it, and individual perceives the things as a whole and not as a mere collection of its constituents on elements. To a Gestalt psychologists, the menaning of sensation or perception are always involves a problem of organization. Gestalts also projected the mechanistic approach to behaviour as advocated by the behaviorists through a simple stimulus response connection. They asserted that a sort of organization definitely exists between the stimulus and response which helps in forming a new gestalt or an organized whole. For example, when one looks at a tree what one sees is a tree. The gestalts further claim that when the components of thing are brought together by the mind something new may emerge, reinforcing the statement. The whole is different from the sum of its parts. As a result, human behaviour is characterized as an intelligent behaviour rather than a simple stimulus response mechanism.
Merits of Gestalt psychology and its contributions to education
1. Gestalts laid great emphasis on the role of motivation and definite goals and purposes in any type of learning. This has resulted in providing a central role to motivation in any scheme of learning and education. The emphasis on setting clear cut objectives, defining them in definite behavioral terms and linking education with the needs and motives of the learner may be said to be some of the great contribution of psychology.
2. Gestaltism has a notable feature that it makes the task of perception, learning and problem solving an intelligent task rather than a piecemeal molecular function on a mere stimulus response mechanical process. It has provided a scientist and progressive method of problem solving based on the cognitive abilities of the learners.
3. Gestaltism has necessitated research in the field of organizational climate, institutional planning, group dynamic etc. for organizing the factors in the environment of the learners in to a meaningful whole so as to put in the best efforts for managing the affairs of education and welfare of the individuals.
School of psycho analysis
Psycho analysis as a system on school of psychology was the brain child of Sigmund Freud, a Venice
Humanist psychology
This new school of psychology reflects in the recent trends of humanism in psychology. Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollow May, Arthur, combs Gordon, Allport etc. It gives more value to human being by not considering him merely as sophisticated machine, victim of conflict between the ego and the Id.
10. Thurston’s and Thorndike’s theories of nature of intelligence?
Philsophists and psychologists developed various theories as regards the nature of intelligence. Thurston and Thorndike is the most prominent psychologist. They introduced this view regarding the theory of intelligence
Thurston’s group factor theory
Louis L Thurston, an American psychologist. He was of the view that intelligence could not be regarded as a unitary thing. He concluded that there is no one general factor ‘G’. He proposed that intelligence consists of a number of primary abilities which different people have in varying carious tests. Using a method of factor analysis that was suitable for analyzing many factor analysis that was suitable for analyzing many factor analysis that was suitable for analyzing many factors at once centroid method. He identified the following factors as primary mental abilities
1) Numeral ability
The ability to calculate or which is usually known as mathematical ability.
2) Verbal fluency
This is the ability to deal with relationship expressed in words. It also includes the ability in the use of words.
3) Verbal comprehension
This refers to one’s vocabulary or the knowledge of words and their meanings.
4) Rote memory
This is the ability to memorise verbal materials as measured by the usual methods of recall and recognition
5) Perceptual speed
The ability finds out quickly similarities and differences in groups of designs
6) Spatial relations
This deals with one’s ability to find out relationship among objects in space by quickly visualizing the three dimensional factor or space
7) Inductive reasoning
This is the ability which is usually dealt with in logic while examining a series of facts of data to find out a general principle running through them.
8) Deductive reasoning
This is also an ability which is commonly dealt with in logic. This deals with one’s ability to apply a given general principle to a particular situation.
Multi factor theory – E.L. Thorndike
Multifactor theory of intelligence developed by E.L. Thorndike, an American Psychologist. He was an associationist who opposed the theory of general intelligence. He proposed that these are specific stimuli and specific responses. Intelligence is nothing more than a convenient name for an almost infinite number of actual or potential specific connections between these stimuli and responses. Differences of intelligence among people are due to the number of connections in the neurological system. According to this theory there no general intelligence. Thorndike theory is atomistic theory of intelligence. He distinguished four attributes of intelligence.
a) Level: - This attribute refers to the difficulty of task that can be solved. If we think of all tasks to test items arranged in sequential order of increasing difficulty then the height that we can attain in this ladder of difficulty determinants our levels or attitude of intelligence level is the important factor of intellect, but we cannot measure it alone.
b) Range: - Range or width refers to the number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty that we can solve. Theoretically, an individual, possessing a given level of intelligence should be able to solve the whole range or task at that level. Range of intellectual growth is determined not only by level but also bridth of experience and opportunity to learn. In intelligence tests, range is represented items of equal difficulty. We cannot measure attitude without range or width.
a) Area: - Areas in test means the total number of situations at each levels to which the individual is able to respond. Area is a summation of all the ranges at each level of intelligence processed by an individual. It is in general highly correlated with attitude level.
b) Speed: - This is the rapidity with which can respond to test items speed and attitude are positively correlated.
Every intelligence test consist those four attributes. When we test a person, we give him certain number of tasks (area) and these tasks vary in difficulty (attitude). There is certain number of items at each level of difficulty (range) and they are responded in a given time (speed). Emphasis on the aspect of these attributes varies from test to test
11. What are the methods of study of educational psychology? How do they differ from one another in terms of purposes and modes of operation?
Psychology is termed a scientific study of behaviour. For that study it takes the help of various methods. All that methods have their own strengths and weaknesses and possess some unique characteristics which make them highly specific in a particular situation. A wise investigator should have a deep idea in to the nature of his subject, his problems the environmental surroundings and the resources at hand and accordingly select a proper method or methods to keep him as a scientific and objective as possible for deriving the best possible results from his study.
The most common methods of study Educational psychology as follows.
Observation method
Observation method consists of the perception of an individual’s behaviour under natural conditions by the other individuals and the interpretation and analysis of this perceived behaviour by them. By this method we can infer the mental processes of other persons through the observation of their external behaviour. It is an indirect approach. This method is economical, natural as well as flexible. It occupies a leading role in the study of human behaviour.
This method cannot be termed as sufficiently objective, reliable and valid. i.e., in cases of hypocrisy the method of observation proves a failure in judging the true nature of the individual concerned. Subjectivity of the investigator also affects the result of observation. Another important limitation is to establish the proper cause and effect relationship of the phenomena.
Experimental method
Experimental method is considered as a most scientific and objective method for studying bahaviour. Here we try to study the cause and effect relationship regarding the nature of human behaviour by performing experiments i.e., the objective observations under rigidly controlled laboratory like conditions. The key factor to this method is the controlling of conditions or variables. There are 3 types of variables – independent, dependent and intervening. Independent variable stands for the cause and dependent for the effect of that cause. The other conditions or influence those cause and effect relationships are called intervening variables. In an experiment all such variables are needed to be controlled.
Clinical Case Study
Clinical case study method helps in the diagnosis and treatment of the problem or exceptional behaviour of an individual. Diagnosis may be carried out through an adequate physical check up, building up a comprehensive history, arranging clinical interview, using relevant tests and measuring devices and observing the clients behaviour in natural surroundings. Treatment is usually of two kinds
1. Modifying the environmental forces
2. Modifying the client’s attitude to help him adjust to his environment
Interview
It is defined as a technique or method for the investigation of behaviour by getting information directly from the subject about his behaviour in face to face contact or relationship. It needs to establish a proper rapport, pre-planning in terms of the set objectives, questions asked, recording of the responses and proper analysis or interpretation of the recorded responses. Interview proves quite beneficial in terms of getting cent per cent answers to the questions asked and getting most confidential information on the spot. How ever, it suffers from the subjective bias of the interviewer and possibility of hiding so many things of one’s behaviour on the part of the individual concerned. It also proves too costly to arrange for the interview for the investigation of the individual’s behaviour.
A comparison of various methods
Though observation method has so many advantages, there some disadvantages also. That we have discussed. Being an M Ed student we must know about the quantitative reaches. Experiment method can be termed as a quantitative one. It has so many limitations. The dynamic nature of human behaviour may affect the result. This method is costly and time consuming one.
Clinical approach is an art as well as a science, and technology which means that every body cannot treat every patient and it derives pleasure I making meaning healthier and better. Diagnosis is the major, step for this approach.
Interview method is relatively a flexible tool. It permits explanation, adjustment and variations according to the situation and thus proves one of the essential and important tools for the investigation of behaviour. It has some limitations. It is often held in artificial situation. It suffers from the subjective bias of the interviewer; it needs a well trained competent interviewer. It is costly in terms of the labour, time and money.
Conclusion
The scientific method of psychology can be deeply study the above methods. Every method has merits and demerits. So we should choose the best for our study purpose.
12. Define personality? What measure would you adopt to measure the personality of a teacher?
The term personality has been defined differently by different psychologists.
“Personality is the sum total of all the biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, aptitudes and instincts of the individual and the acquired disposition and tendencies”. –Morton Prince
“Personality is the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observations over a long enough period f time to give reliable information” –Watson
“Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation”-Cattell
In view of the foregoing definitions regarding its characteristics and scope, as a practical definition, it may be said that, “personality is a complex blend of a constantly evolving and changing pattern of one’s unique behaviour, emerged as a result of one’s interaction with one’s environment and directed towards some specific ends”.
Psychology employs a number of methods by which it measure personality, eg:- situation test, psycho analytic test and projective method, interview and questionnaire and rating method have their own importance.
We can measure the personality of teacher with the help of various methods of personality measurements. The following are the major method of personality measurement.
1. Case history method
In this method, as the name obviously indicated, the facts concerning the life of the subject are collected. This case history supplied all the large and small facts related to his environment and heredity. This method can be used to study both normal and abnormal people’s personalities but it needs very experimental examiners.
2. Interview method
The interview method is the most normal of all the method for the study of personality. It is the method widely used in the selection of people for government services. In this subject and the examiner sit facing each other while the former answers question asked by the latter.
3. Questionnaire method
Questionnaire has been used extensively in the investigation of personality. The name suggests that it is the list of selected questions; the answers to which throw light upon the peculiarities of personality. Questionnaires are used to gain knowledge of traits like self confidence, sociability etc.
4. Performance method
The performance method was conceived by May and itartahorne, in this method the subject is given a variety of specific jobs to be performed and the subtle quality of his personality examined.
5. Rating method
Another method of measuring personality is the rating method, in which roughly the work is done in two ways. One, the subject is asked to answer questions related to traits of personality. The answers which the subject offers or the answers which he selects indicate hid personality.
6. Situation test
As usual, the name suggests the nature of the method. In it, the subject is placed in some specific situations and the traits of his personality are ascertained. Actually it resembles the performance method; the difference lying in the fact that in this case the person is placed in a situation while in the performance method he is given some work to do. Most psychologists have identified the two together, rendering separate discussion indispensable.
7. Projective techniques
The most famous and popular of all the methods for the investigation of personality is the projective method. Its name suffers the fact that it is founded upon their element of projection. Projection means the observation of some specific thing in something or action; according to one’s personality and mental state.
Many peculiarities of the personality are investigated by an analysis of this projection and a comparison of it with the projections effected by others.
Some common projective techniques are following
a) Rorschach ink blot test
This test was conceived by Swiss scientist Hermann Rorschach. He used 10 original inkblot cards which are still in use today. There is no picture made in these blots. Five of these are black, two black and red and other three multicolored. To investigate personality, they are exhibited before the subject one after the other and he is asked to describe everything he sees in the blot. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These cards are shown to the subject for a second time and he is asked to point out the location, of whatever he had seen on the blot. In order to establish the meaning of the subject’s reaction to the blots, the psychologist analyses the location, deciding factors and the subject.
Besides the above analysis, facts like the fine taken by the subject to react to the whole blot, the number of activities which he did and whether he did them normally or not, are also noted observed. All these things tend to help in the analysis and investigation of the unconscious of the subject. But maximum efforts must need to make this test scientific.
b) Murray
The founder of this test, Murray
Word Association Test, Picture Association Test, Dramatic Production Test, Man Drawing Test etc are other projective tools which are not so important as to need description.
13. What are the various causes of behavioural problem I children. As a teacher a child with a special problem. Illustrate with an example.
The term “problem” can be described as something that is perplexing and requires a solution. Behavioural problems are the problems which need problematic behaviours are those that are perplexing and trouble some and that call for a solution.
Of all living organism in the world, humans have complex and diverse behaviour. Human behaviour is characterized by the complexity and diversity since it stems from multiple influences and their continuous interactions.
Causes of behavioural problems
Behavioural problems are nothing but the manifestation of improper/abnormal cognitive and affective functioning. They are the result of interactions among variables such as biological structure and function, inheritance, cognition, social emotional factors, family, peers, social class, culture and situational settings.
Behavioural problems are also referred to by various labels such as behavioural disturbances, behavioural dysfunction’s, behavioural problems, psychological problems, abnormal behaviour, maladaptive behaviour, impairments, deficiencies, deficits and psycho pathology. Guidelines for identifying or diagnosing behavioural disorders are relatively based on making decision so f what or what is not problematic.
Behavioural problems are often viewed as an ‘abnormality’. Generally, it is believed that any deviation of behaviour from the expected standard or norm is harmful in some way to the individual and results in disorder. Behaviour problems have also been defined as a failure of function adequately towards achieving some sense of personal well being and making some contribution larger social group.
Judgment about behaviour calls for the developmental norms also. If a three year old baby is notable to walk or to sit without support, it normally gives rise to concern. Similarly children sometimes act their age but fail to progress. This is known as ‘regression’. I a child display fear in excessive number of situations and if it does not fade away with the passage of time, then ‘fearfulness’ becomes a problem.
Children display a variety of behavioural, emotional, social, learning and physical problems. The behavioural perspective of problem was set into notion by J.B. Watson (1913). The central concept of this perspective is that childhood disorders are learned in the same way that other behaviours are learned.
Models of treatment for behavioural problems
The perspective that a psycho pathologist adopts decides the style of treatment offered.
Parent training
It is generally agreed by the professionals that change in the child’s behaviour may be effected by producing changes in the way that the parents manage the child. It is only the parent’s perception, along with the child’s actual behaviour, that has led the child being referred for treatment. Parent training has led the child being referred for treatment. Parent training modes have been applied to a wide variety of childhood behavioural problems
Treatment in residential settings
When the behavioural problems of the children become very severe, residential treatment is considered to be the best mode of intervention. Residential treatment may be offered in group homes, child psychiatry units in medical hospitals, units in non medical settings, and juvenile homes. It is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of these treatment services.
Pharmacological treatment
The interventions offered for a variety of childhood behavioural problem include pharmacological treatment. Medications that affect mood, thought processes or overt behaviour are called ‘psychotropic’ or ‘psychoactive’. Treating behaviour problem by prescribing such medications is often referred to as ‘psychopharmacological treatment’.
Depression as a behavioural problem
Treatments for depressed children have been mostly adapted from the intervention to depressed adults. Treatment includes both pharmacological measures.
A professional with a behavioural or social learning perspective is expected to offer treatments that are action oriented and he/she focuses on present problems, assuming that treatment is an earning process governed by principles common to all learning situations. If the concerned behaviour problem is thought to be arising out of a combination of influences, a professional tends to employ several modes of treatment.
I. Indiviudal and group pathology
Psychotherapy aims to offer a typical one to one verbal experience. This is the most common mode of treatment for children. Treatment is also offered in groups. Whether the mode of treatment is in individual or in group format; psychotherapy views verbal forms as an ideal form of intervention, particularly with older children and adolescent. It is generally believed that the need to alter treatment procedure in accordance with the child’s cognitive as well as emotional level of development should be realized. Realization of this need has given rise to non verbal modes of treatment for very young children…
II. Play Therapy
A very common mode of behaviour therapy is play. Since play activities have much importance in the development of young children, play as a therapeutic vehicle has its own advantages. It remains a solution to deal with the children of lesser verbal abilities. Most practitioners have accepted the play as a means of communications. Emphasis over the inclusion of play in the treatment of children was first made by the therapist, Melanie Klein (1932) and cognitive behavioural measures. As a teacher I will focus on educating and modifying the child’s maladaptive cognitions like problematic attributions, excessively high standards, negative self monitoring and so on. Behavioural aspects of treatment aim at increasing pleasurable experiences, social skills and improving communication, conflict resolution and social problem solving skills.
14. Hull
In his theory Hull
Primary reinforcement tendered to strengthen certain behaviour through the satisfaction of basic biological needs, drives or drive stimuli. Secondary reinforcement is brought about by an originally neutral stimulus like money by association with a primary reinforcing agency.
According to Hull
Another concept in Hull Hull
Another concept elaborated by Hull
Reaction potential = S E r =sHr×D×V×K
Where sHr is the habit strength
D is the strength of the drive
V is the Power of intensity of a stimulus
K is the degree of the attractive (intensive) ness of popular reward.
Since all the four factors are multiplied in contributory towards the building of reaction potential. If any one had a value of zero, reaction potential would be zero.
In his theory of behaviour Hull
1. Reaction inhibition (Ir)
2. Conditional Inhibition (Slr)
Reaction inhibition caused by the internal physiological and biochemical nature of the individual
Conditional inhibition caused by the psychological and environmental factors. Both of these two types of inhibition work together in exercising the overall effect of reducing the probability of occurrence. They result in the effective reaction potential symbolized as SEr
SEr= (SHr×D×V×K)-Ir+Slr
i.e., S E r=Reaction potential-inhibition
In the course of his experiments Hull
He asserted that it happens on account of the variation brought about in the inhibitory potential of an individual from moment to moment depending on several internal and external factors. This continuously changing inhibitory potential was named as oscillation effect.
SEr= ((SHr×D×V×K)-I)-sOr
This momentary effective reaction potential is responsible for the occurrence of a learned response. Hull
- The value of momentary effective reaction potential must exceed a certain value collected reaction threshold. (SLr) in order to emit a learned response
- The probability of a learned response (P) is increased to the extent that the value of the MER potential is higher that the value of the reaction threshold.
- The greater the value SEr the shorter will be the latency.
- The larger value of the SEr increases the power of resistance for the extinction of a learned response.
- The magnitude of an emitted learned response termed as aptitude (A) is directly related to the size of the SEr.
15. Briefly describe the dynamics of personality development as viewed by Freud. Mention the class room implication of this theory.
Psycho analysis as a system or school of psychology was the brain child of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) a Venice
Life and death instincts
Freud believed in the role of instinct in driving human behaviour. He postulated two main instincts namely the life instinct and the death instinct, as the source of all the psyche energy available n man.
One’s life instinct is engaged in the service of one’s life and its main aims are survival and the propagation of the spices. It is manifested through sex and love. Freud gave the name ‘libido’ to the driving force of the life instinct and made it synonymous with the sex urge and sexuality of human beings. The libido believed in the pleasure principle, aroused from any of the organs in the body and through any function, as advocated by Freud, is ultimately sexual in nature, the sex urge or sex motive may be regarded as the dynamic force and centre of all human behaviour at all ages.
The concept of the other instinct, called the death instinct, related to the impulse for destruction, it is manifested through acts of aggression, guilty and even of suicide. Freud held that when one’s life instinct is not allowed to function or to govern one’s behaviour, the death instinct comes in to the picture for operationing behaviour. For example, when one is not permitted to seek sexual gratification or derive pleasure, one is bound to lose one’s balance, suffer frustration which may consequently lead to the destruction one’s self or of others.
Structure of the psyche or mind
Freud, while explaining the structure of the human psyche or mind, divided it in 2 different parts, first by arranging it in to three layers as the conscious, the sub conscious and the unconscious second by postulating three other components viz. ‘id’, ‘ego’ and ‘super ego’.
The concept of conscious, sub conscious and unconscious mind
Here we were to compare the human mind to an ocean, pond or a river, then the upper layer or the surface would represent the conscious mind the main bed would be identified with the subconscious, and the bottom would form the unconscious.
The conscious mind occupies one tenth of our total psyche or mental life, ideas thoughts and images also occur in it. The unconscious mind is the middle portion of the mind, which sores all type of information. In the middle bed or layer of the human mind there lie all experiences or knowledge which have been gained or learned by an individual through various types of experiences or training.
Below the subconscious mind lied the unconscious the most important part of the mind, it contains all the repressed wishes, Desires, feelings, drives and motives many of which relate to sex and aggression. Freud says, that we do and how we behave is always determined by the forces residing in our unconscious and not by the choices of conscious mind.
The concept of Id, Ego and Super Ego
Freud further invented three more concepts the Id, Ego and Super ego for explaining the structure of the psyche and used them in providing a two tier tripartite division of the psyche as may be understood diagrammatically as given under
The id represents the animal in man and is seated in the unconscious. It is the source of the mental energy and all instinctive energy of the individual. It knows no reality follows no rules and considers only the satisfaction of its own needs and drives. It operates according to the pleasure principle. It is quite selfish and unethical.
For the sake of welfare of the individual and of society, the blind id cannot be act at this time of ego and super ego comes in to play.
The super ego is the direct antithesis of Id and represents the ethical and moral aspects of psyche. Id it is also seated in the unconscious but it is not governed by man’s instinctive tendencies or primitive drives. It is idealistic in nature, and perfection is its goal, rather than pleasure seeking or destruction.
Ego acts as intermediate between three sets of force. It also acts a balancing role.
Infantile sexuality and psycho sexual development.
Sex is the life urge therefore, not only of adults but also of infants who manifest sexual desires by sucking the breast of their mother and feeling satisfied. Freud termed this as infantile sexuality. Growing with such need for sex gratification the individual’s psycho sexual developments said to pass thorough certain distinctive stages like the oral stage, the anal stage, and the phallic, latency and genital stage.
The flow of libido
Libido the life maintaining energy, the flow of this energy in terms of the satisfaction of sexual urge is normal and satisfactory. But this flow is repressed or blocked it ends not only in free floating anxiety but also gives birth to serve conflicts leading to mental illness and abnormal behaviour.
Psychoanalysis as a method of studying behaviour and therapy is said to involve steps like 1. Establishing rapport with the subject 2. Analysis of the behaviour of the subject to uncover the underlying causes of the abnormality by adopting techniques like free associations. 3. Synthesis for restructuring and restoring the lost balance of the psyche 4. Breaking the rapport in order to enable the patient to face the realities of life without the support of the analyst.
Anxiety, conflicts and disintegration of personality
Anxiety and conflicts lead an individual to develop in to an abnormal personality. Freud describes anxiety as a painful emotional experience representing a threat or danger to the individual concerned. Whereas in the in the state of fear the source of tension is known in case of anxiety one cannot relate to earlier traumatic experience. Very often it is the result of un discharged sexual impulses- a blocked up libido.
Blocking up or repression of the libido or sexual urge, according to Freud, does not end in free floating anxiety but also gives birth to serve conflicts leading to mental illness and abnormal behaviour. All conflicts in one way or the other represents clashes of the authority and rules of one’s id, ego and super ego. The ego plays a role of moderator. In case the super ego is too strong and dominates the ego of the individual, the anxiety and conflict may give birth to a psychotic personality but in case super ego is not so rigid, than the expression of the repressed libido may result in a less severe form of personality disintegration like neurosis or milder symptoms like headache, back ache, restless.
Class room implications of Freud theory
- In a class room it has given a good method for the study of children’s behaviour.
- It has highlighted the importance of good education and healthy environment in the class room by emphasizing the role of child hood experiences.
- Freud’s concept of the unconscious has helped in understanding the cause of maladaptive behaviour.
- His emphasis on the role of sex in one’s life has brought out the necessity of providing proper sex education to children
- Freud’s system of psycho analysis has called for the provision of proper extra curricular activities and suitable hobbies etc in the class room programmes for the release of repressed or blocked libidinal energy and pent up feelings.
16. Enumerate the components involved in creative thinking. Suggest an instruction strategy helpful to foster creativity in school children
Creativity is the ability to create something. Imagination is the main spring of creativity.
Imagination →Invention →Innovation→Creativity
Whatever is novel, unique, original and unconventional is known as creative.
Right hemisphere of our brain is creative in nature
Creativity is the ability to do things differently and to do think differently
J.P.Guilford speaks of two kinds of thinking namely convergent and divergent thinking.
J.P.Guilford identifies the following characteristics in creative thinking
1. Ability to change one’s approach to a problem
2. Coping with ideas that are both relevant and unusual
3. Going beyond the immediate situation
4. Redefining the problem or some part of it.
Creative ability consists of several abilities of divergent thinking. Divergent thinking stimulated a questioning frame of mind and discourages blind acceptance.
7 abilities of divergent thinking are
- fluency
- flexibility
- originality
- sensitiveness
- elaboration
- guessing ability
- redefinition ability
Characteristics of creativity
- creativity is universal
- creativity carries ego involvement
- creativity is innate as well as acquired
- it is the ability to produce a new or novel
- It is adventurous and open thinking
- creativity and achievement are correlated
- creativity and anxiety often go together
Methods to foster creativity among children
- Freedom to respond: - Parents and teachers often expect fixed response from children. Thus they kill the creativity of child. They should be given adequate freedom to respond to a situation
- Encouraging originality and flexibility:- Originality on the part of children in any form should be encouraged. If a child seeks to change the methods of learning a test or solving a problem, they should be encouraged to do so.
- removal of hesitation and fear:-
- Providing appropriate opportunities and atmosphere for creative expression:- A healthy atmosphere, favorable for creative thinking and expression is essential for the stimulation and nourishment of creativity among children
- Developing healthy habits among children:- Industriousness persistence, self reliance and self confidence are some of the qualities that are helpful in creative output. Children should therefore be helped to imbibe these qualities
- using the creative resources of the communities:- Children should be made to visit the centre of art, scientific and industrial creative work. This may stimulate and inspire them for creative work.
- avoidance of blocks to creative thinking:-Factors like conservation, faculty methods of teaching, unsympathetic treatment, fixed and rigid habits of work, anxiety and frustration, excessively high standards of achievement for low levels of work, over emphasis on school marks etc are block to creativity
- proper organization of the curriculum:- Learning experiences in the form of curricula should be so designed so as to foster creativity among children. For this purpose, the school curriculum should be organized primarily on the basis of concepts rather than facts.
- reform in the evaluation system:-Our education system is totally examination oriented and appropriate reform must, therefore be made in our evaluation system if creativity is to be nurtured. The emphasis on memorization, by rote, fixed and rigid single responses, and convergent thinking etc. which kills creativity of the children should be abandoned and a proper evaluation system should be adopted.
- use of special techniques for fostering creativity:- Researchers in the field of creativity have suggested special techniques and methods for fostering creativity among children
- brain storming
- use of teaching models
- use of gaming techniques
- Teaching by example:-Example is better than percept. Children are very imitative. The teachers and parents who themselves follow the beaten track and do not show any originality for fear of being wrong or never experience the excitement of creating or doing something new, fail to stimulate creativity among the children in their charge. The teachers and parents must therefore themselves develop the habit of creative thinking.
All these will be helpful to foster creativity in school children.
17. Outline the structure and development of personality as propounded by Allport. State briefly the techniques of assessing personality
Gordon W Allport was the first theorist who by rejecting the notion of relatively limited number of personality types and adopted the trait approach for the description of highly individualized personalities. He received gold medal in 1894. he mainly forces n the conscious determinants of human personality. He gave emphasis on rationality, unity of the personality, discontinues between normal and abnormal. He rejected materialistic approach. He completely concentrated on natural science approach.
He considered himself as a systematic pluralist. In 1966, he proposed a epistemological position in research for personality- known as heuristic realism.
According to him, distinction between structure and dynamics of personality is impossible. Personality structure is represented in terms of traits. At the same time the behaviour is motivated by these traits.
Traits according to Allport are the basic units of personality. Allport distinguished 3 types of traits namely
1. Cardinal traits
2. Secondary traits
3. Central traits
Cardinal traits are the primary traits so dominant in one’s personal disposition that the colour virtually every aspect of ones behaviour and attributes. These traits are found limited in number. E.g. If humoursness is the cardinal trait of a person, he will bring a sense of humour into almost all situations irrespective of its actual demands.
Central traits are typical to one. They are most common. They can be easily inferred from the behaviour. According to Allport, for knowing an individuals personality, we need to know 5 to 10 such central traits, e.g. honesty, kindness etc.
Cardinal traits are less common but more specific. These traits combined with a few central traits form the core of characteristic traits responsible for giving uniqueness to one’s personality.
Allport analyzed about 18000 terms taken from a dictionary that could be used by people to describe each other and they finally came up with a total 4541 psychological traits from describing human behaviour.
In this way Allport focused on these large numbers of behavioural traits to describe personality instead of explaing it like other developmental and psychological theorists.
To him, “personality” is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine the unique adjustment to its environment”.
He again redefined it in 1961
“Personality” is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine the characteristic behaviour and thoughts.
Allport’s theory of personality is known not only for its emphasis on traits but also for its stress on concepts like functional autonomy, individualized approach in the study of personality and the discontinuous nature of the development of personality etc.
Functional autonomy:- The concept of functional autonomy suggests that functions or means which once served a purpose may attain autonomy at a later stage. Though motives are goal oriented to begin with, they become functionally autonomous when the goals are achieved. Two types of functional autonomies are there
1. Preservative functional autonomy
2. Propriate functional autonomy
Proprium: - actual self or self hood. It includes all the facts about a person that make him unique. Propriate functions of personality are
1. bodily sense
2. self identity
3. self esteem
4. self extension
5. rational thinking
6. sense of self hood
7. self image
8. cognitive style
9. propriate striving
10. function of knowing
According to him, propriate functions are the vital functions of the personality. It is not innate. It develops in time.
According to him, there are 6 basic human values that guides our action. They are
1. Theoretical values
2. Political values
3. Social values
4. Religious values
5. Aesthetic values
6. Economical values
Allport also emphasized another important concept of the discrete and discontinuous nature of the development of personality. He mentioned 3 stages if growth and development of personality namely, - childhood, adolescence and adulthood personalities.
In this way Allport gave a new dimension to the explanation of human behaviour, personality, evolution of the behaviour and aspects of personality by taking traits as the basic units of behaviour.
Techniques of assessing personality
The methods used for the assessment of personality may be termed as a subjective, objective or projective.
1. Case history method
In this method, as the name obviously indicated, the facts concerning the life of the subject are collected. This case history supplied all the large and small facts related to his environment and heredity. This method can be used to study both normal and abnormal people’s personalities but it needs very experimental examiners.
2. Interview method
The interview method is the most normal of all the method for the study of personality. It is the method widely used in the selection of people for government services. In this subject and the examiner sit facing each other while the former answers question asked by the latter.
3. Questionnaire method
Questionnaire has been used extensively in the investigation of personality. The name suggests that it is the list of selected questions; the answers to which throw light upon the peculiarities of personality. Questionnaires are used to gain knowledge of traits like self confidence, sociability etc.
4. Performance method
The performance method was conceived by May and Itartahorne, in this method the subject is given a variety of specific jobs to be performed and the subtle quality of his personality examined.
5. Rating method
Another method of measuring personality is the rating method, in which roughly the work is done in two ways. One, the subject is asked to answer questions related to traits of personality. The answers which the subject offers or the answers which he selects indicate hid personality.
6. Situation test
As usual, the name suggests the nature of the method. In it, the subject is placed in some specific situations and the traits of his personality are ascertained. Actually it resembles the performance method; the difference lying in the fact that in this case the person is placed in a situation while in the performance method he is given some work to do. Most psychologists have identified the two together, rendering separate discussion indispensable.
7. Projective techniques
The most famous and popular of all the methods for the investigation of personality is the projective method. Its name suffers the fact that it is founded upon their element of projection. Projection means the observation of some specific thing in something or action; according to one’s personality and mental state.
Many peculiarities of the personality are investigated by an analysis of this projection and a comparison of it with the projections effected by others.
Some common projective techniques are following
a) Rorschach ink blot test
This test was conceived by Swiss scientist Hermann Rorschach. He used 10 original inkblot cards which are still in use today. There is no picture made in these blots. Five of these are black, two black and red and other three multicolored. To investigate personality, they are exhibited before the subject one after the other and he is asked to describe everything he sees in the blot. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These cards are shown to the subject for a second time and he is asked to point out the location, of whatever he had seen on the blot. In order to establish the meaning of the subject’s reaction to the blots, the psychologist analyses the location, deciding factors and the subject.
Besides the above analysis, facts like the fine taken by the subject to react to the whole blot, the number of activities which he did and whether he did them normally or not, are also noted observed. All these things tend to help in the analysis and investigation of the unconscious of the subject. But maximum efforts must need to make this test scientific.
b) Murray
The founder of this test, Murray
Word Association Test, Picture Association Test, Dramatic Production Test, Man Drawing Test etc are other projective tools which are not so important as to need description.
18. Describe how Piaget explains the process of cognitive development. Bring out the educational implications of Piaget’s ideas.
Piaget a Swiss biologist had profound interest in epistemology. Later he developed a keen interest in child and cognitive psychology. Piaget designed a proper frame work to understand the structure, functioning and development of the cognitive network of human mind. Like physical organs of the human body there are two aspects of the human mind. One is referred as cognitive structure and other as cognitive functioning.
The cognitive structure of infants is supposed to incorporate only those cognitive abilities or potentials which help them to do such acts such as look, reach out or grasp. Piaget named these abilities as schemas.
The various schemas with their contents thus form the basic structure of the human mind. How ever as a child grows with the interaction of physical and social environment, he is able to form different schemas resulting in changes and modification in his cognitive structure.
The cognitive development of a person. Lies in his constant interaction with an adaptation to his physical and social environment. The last of such adaptations carried out through the process of assimilation and accommodation. Piaget asserted that the process of assimilation or the accommodation helps the organism to adjust or maintain a harmonious relationship between himself and his environment. Thus adjustment mechanism was called by equilibration by Piaget.
According to Piaget, cognitive development is the result of continuous interaction between the organism and the environment. Piaget has divided cognitive development into five well defined stages. They are
- Sensory motor stage (0-2):- Piaget called the first stage of intellectual development the sensory motor stage because it is characterized by the absence of language and it is limited to direct sensory and motor interactions with the environment. At birth the infant exhibits a limited number of un coordinated reflexes such as sucking, looking, reaching, and grasping. The early sensor motor experiences of the child have a great bearing on the development of his later intellectual abilities. By the age of 8 months the infant is able to react the objects outside himself. He begins to realize that the objects around him are separate from himself and they have their independent and permanent existence.
- Pre operational stage (2-7):- During the stage objects gradually take on symbolic meanings. In this stage, the child begins to replace direct action in the form of sensory or motor exploration with symbols. This stage can be further sub divided into the pre conceptual phase and the intuitive phase.
- Concrete operational stage (7-11):- This is the stage when child develop the ability for logical thinking. The child now learns to deal with concepts and ideas that exist only in mutual terms. He begins to think in terms of a set of interrelated principles rather than singe bits of knowledge. The ability of reversibility which promote logical thinking.
- Formal operational stage (12-15):- The intellectual development and functioning takes a very sophisticated shape at this stage as the child learns to deal with abstraction by logical thinking. Actually he learns to utilize the tool symbolism as effectively as possible in the process of thought and problem solving. The child now begins to appreciate that some hypothetical problem can be solved mentally by applying same rules as would be applied to concrete problems.
Educational implications
- Piaget interpreted and defined intelligence in a practical way. From birth onwards, the individual has to struggle for survived and seek adjustment with his environment.
- Piaget’s theory has highlighted the importance of drives and motivation in the field of learning and development. It has utilized the concept of equilibration for this purpose by defining it as the continuous drive towards for this purpose by defining it as the continuous drive towards equilibrium or balance between the organism and its environment.
- Piaget’s theory provides valuable information and advice on curriculum planning and structuring the schemas of studies. Piaget’s theory may help by providing a suitable frame work of the learning experiences in view of the cognitive development of the children and the needs of society.
- The knowledge of Piaget’s theory may prove quite valuable to teachers and parents for making them aware of the nature of the thought processes of the children and a particular level of maturation.
- The major contribution of Piaget’s theory is its analysis and suggestion of the optimal conditions of an individuals learning and development by introducing the concept of assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium.
The main contributions of Piaget’s theory are its emphasis on the individualization of education. It has advocated the need of child centered education by saying that the educational experiences must build around the learner’s cognitive structure.
- Explain the developmental pattern during adolescence and bring out its educational implication
- What factors cause anxiety to an adolescent? In what ways, can teachers and parents help adolescents to overcome their social and emotional differences
Ans The term adolescent comes from the Latin word adoloscre meaning to grow or to grow to maturity. Period of adolescent is the most crucial period in the life of human beings. The adolescent is eager to interact with new experiences, to find new relation ship to examine resources of inner strength and fathom the strength of inner ability. The adolescent tries to have freedom to think and ser his own goals and discover means to achieve them. The adolescent wants to have more freedom to enjoy. It is necessary for the young person to have in a right manner and establish himself and obey the rules at home and outside.
Adolescent is still a formative stage of human life. Adolescents will show a great capacity for change. They will have flexibility. Adolescents, who are emotionally disturbed, also show capacity for growth and change. They are liable to modify themselves under congenial conditions of environment. The adolescent is by nature a rebel against the traditions and customs prevailing in his society. His rebellions instinct can be channeled to good use by the teacher who can help to develop a generation which hate all the bad tradition and rids society of them. Adolescents can be taught to rise above their narrow interests and comprehend the spirit of nationality, internationality and cosmic love.
In adolescence the individual should be given vocational guidance after his mental capacities, inclinations and interests have been examines. His education should conform to the vocation that he is going to pursue in the future so that he may not be misfit in any occupations but should rather be able to earn and comfortable living, establish a house hold and contribute actively to national development.
Development of self is an important phase of adolescence stage. Self is a very complicated concept. Physical and psychological growth in adoloscnt is influenced by many factors. Relative influence of various factors in development of physical and psychological attributes of adolescent stage of boys and girls. One of the important factors that affect the growth of adolescent’s physically and psychologically is parents. Parents are very important factor in the growth of adolescence. Affectionate and loving parents inculcate and emotional feeling of goodness in their children. Children under such conditions learn to be free, frank, honest, and candid such children learn to be spontaneous in their behavior.
Another important psychological feeling during adolescence is the existence of anxiety. There can be many causes for it. Adolescents seem to get upset by little things. They are disturbed by trivial events. Little unfriendliness of disapproval will disturb them. Anxiety in adolescents is attributed by jerild to 3 factors
- Stresses and uncertainties tied to human existence that affects the lives of all people.
- Conditions linked to the adolescent period of development and
- Difficulties associated with unresolved problem and conflicts in the adolescent’s life extending back into early childhood. The aforesaid factors play the respective role in generating anxiety among adolescents
Other factors, enumerated by other psychologists from time to time regarding the cause of anxiety are
a) Developmental predicaments among adolescents which are due to fast and quick growth in physical and mental aspects of the body
b) Problems of identification. Adolescents try to increased identification with heroes and other.
c) Increased enthusiasm for realism
The quality of home in which adolescents live may also affect their development. This development can have physical, emotional psychological and moral aspects. Social relationship of adolescents with people at home and outside house are important of them. Adolescents have to learn to gradually wean themselves away from parents and parental surrogates.
In every stage of social development of the child, education contributes much, but this education is not the literacy thrust upon the child through books and lectures. The real and incalculable factors that exert this influence are the extra curricular programs, the school atmosphere, rules of conduct in school, radio cinema, newspapers etc. Group camps almost invariably have a healthy influence upon the individuals’ social development or socialization. It helps form his character and develop social quality. He acquires good habits and developing many kinds of skill. In the informal atmosphere of the camp, individuals can meet and mix with greater freedom and informality so that their social education is set in emotion. In this manner, teachers and parents can co operative to create adequate facilities and opportunities for the healthy social development infants, children and adolescents
2. Briefly outline the theories of intelligence advanced by Guilford
Gardiner? Which of them do you prefer? Why?
or
There is no intelligent definition of intelligence. Discuss this statement in the
light of the theory of intelligence by Guilford
Ans Dr. J.P. Guilford developed and presented a well organized system of abilities called structure of intellect (SOI). These abilities, according to Guilford Guilford
The term intelligence can now be defined as “a systematic collection of abilities or functions processing information of different kinds in various forms”.
Let us consider the 3 dimensional cubical figures which represent the 3 factors of each ability and the carious categories involved in each dimension.
This model proposes that intelligence consists of 150 independent abilities that result from interaction of 5 types of content , 5 types of operation and 6 types of products. But in later it becomes 180 by splitting memory into retentive memory and association memory
Code for SOI categories
Operation
|
Content
|
Products
| |||
C
|
Cognition
|
V
|
Visual
|
U
|
Units
|
M
|
Memory
|
A
|
Auditory
|
C
|
Classes
|
D
|
Divergent thinking
|
S
|
Symbolic
|
R
|
relations
|
N
|
Convergent thinking
|
M
|
Semantic
|
S
|
System
|
E
|
Evaluation
|
B
|
Behavioral
|
T
|
Transformation
|
I
|
Implications
| ||||
I). Contents (The type of information involves)
a. Figural (Visual) :-The properties of stimuli we can experience through visual senses eg:- Color, size, shape, texture and other visual character of figure
b. Figural (Auditory):- The properties of stimuli we can experience through the auditory senses. Eg:- Voice and sound
c. Symbolic:- Number, letter, symbols, designs
d. Semantic:- The meaning of words, ideas
e. Behavioral:- The actions and expression of people
II). Operation (The way of processing information)
a) Cognition:- Recognizing and discovering
b) Memory:- Retaining, and recalling the contents of thought
c) Divergent production:- Producing a variety of ideas or solutions to a problem.
d) Convergent Production:- Producing a single best solution to a problem.
e) Evaluation:- Taking decision about the nature of the intellectual contents or gathered information. Whether it is positive or negative, good or bad etc.
III). Products (the results obtained through operations)
a) Units: - The individual pieces of information related to each other on the basis of some common characteristic involving a higher order concept.
b) Relations:- A connection between concepts
c) Systems:- A ordering or classification of relations.
d) Transformation:- Altering or restructuring intellectual contents.
e) Implication:- Making inferences from separate pieces of information
In this way according to Guilford
Gardiner’s theory of multiple intelligence
During the year 1983 Howard Gardiner advocated a new theory namely ‘Multiple intelligence’. Gardiner’s theory of multiple intelligence suggests that there are 8 kinds of human abilities. And theory formed in 1999, through his work, ‘multiple intelligence for the 21 st century’, he further modified his theory. He introduced 11 types of intelligence. According to him each person has a unique profile of this intelligence with different degrees of strength in some areas and weakness in others. The theory implies that traditional school education is likely to neglect a large portion of human abilities and that students considered as slow learners, low achievers etc by conventional academic measures.
The quote Gardiner: “Intelligence is the ability to fine and solve problem in create products of value in ones own culture”
The 11 types of intelligences presented by Gardiner in his theory of multiple intelligence are as follows
I. Verbal or linguistic intelligence
It is the capacity to use words both oral and written appropriately and effectively in time. Though there is an inborn capacity of language ability in every child, the effectiveness differs from person to person
Teachers should give emphasis to this aspect while thy plan and execute their teaching learning activities.
Some such tasks are
1). creating many opportunities for interaction among student and between the teacher and student.
2). Preparing written material for debate, seminar and discussion etc
3). Writing articles, imagery news etc
4). Making report on a study tour, picnic etc
II) Logical or mathematical intelligence
The existence of this intelligence will enable an individual to think logically, to find out the interrelation between ideas and to carry our some abstract thinking. This forms the basis for some systematic and orderly actions. Finding ou the logic behind some patterns, experimentation and observation, scientific analysis, inductive and deductive reasoning.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Establishing some relationship among various and related aspects.
2. Observing the diversity of plants and animals and making clarifications
3. Calculating the average rainfall of a given region.
4. Solving the practical problems in study camp
III) Visual or spatial intelligence
The presence of this type of intelligence enabled the geographical discovers and travelers to find out directions and observing locations of some places. The ability to sense form, space, color, size and shape. It include the ability to represent visual, or special ideas.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1). Making posters, charts etc upon some selected themes like environmental protection,
A forestation and deforestation etc.
2). Slide shows and pictures.
3). Map projection, drawing map etc.
IV) Musical or rhythmic intelligence
It includes the ability for perceiving discriminating, transforming musical forms. The ability to sense rhythm, pitch and melody. This includes such skills as the ability to recognize simple songs, tempo and rhythm in simple melodies. We can help students develop musical intelligence by using tape recorder for listening singing along and learning songs.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Reciting and appreciating poems, songs, light music etc.
2. Presenting such songs in chorus
V) Bodily or kinesthetic intelligence
It refers to the ability of an individual for keeping normally, increasing speed etc related to the physical and motor movements of his body. Construction of something, imitation, dramatization, using gestures and body language, excellence in games, play activities, experiments, dancing, swimming etc. Which need physical movements also involve this intelligence
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Conducting activities like nature study camp, mountaineering, swimming and sports
and games competition
2. Organizing musical dramas
3. Conducting dance programmes
VI) Inter personal intelligence
The ability to understand our self – our strength, weakness, moods, desires and intentions. Being a social animal, an individual has to interact with his fellow beings, understanding them properly and interpret the behavioral pattern. The intelligence that enables the individual to perform such tasks efficiently is qualifies as ‘inter personal’. Some politicians , cultural leader, social activists respond effectively to the public by feeling and evaluating their thoughts, emotions, likes and dislikes can be said to posses this type of intelligence
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Give opportunities for the group activities, sharing of experience and for involving in social issues and activities.
2. Follow co operative and collaborative learning strategies while dealing with the content.
3. Conduct debates and discussion day to day problem of society.
4. Conduct camp for developing
VII) Intra personal intelligence
The ability to understand another person’s moods, feelings, motivation and intentions. It denotes the ability of a person to analyse his own inner conflicts, problems and to solve these himself.
Strong will power, intrinsic motivation, senses of responsibility, self disciplines etc are some of the related characteristic of this type of intelligence
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Allow pupil to express freely and frankly.
2. Engage them in journal writing, reporting and in some imaginary writing.
3. Making sudden speeches and engaging in creative writings.
VIII) Naturalistic intelligence
It is revealed in the ability of an individual to observe nature keenly, identify the characteristics features of diverse plants and animals, to classify and categorize and to predict the changes in climate.
Some tasks that facilitate the development of this intelligence
1. Sharing experience from nature
2. Conduct picnic, study tour, field trips etc to study forests, gardens and a variety of habitats
IX) Spiritual Intelligence
Intelligence deals with ability in taking part of religious and spiritual aspects. It deals with the spiritual religious practices of human community or civilization require the expression of these intelligence from the learner
X) Moral Intelligence
Moral intelligence expresses out in dealing with moral issues relating with right wrong, justice-injustice and good-bad etc. Moral intelligence become teaching when the morality and moral issues of the society are to be taught
XI) Existential intelligence
It indicates ability to survive in challenging situations. The national, international, socio-cultural political and economic challenges faced by the human beings when become a topic of study.
3. “Learning is learning to learn”. Discuss. Which are the types of experiences
help full for the concept of learning according to Bruner.
Learning to learning to learn. Infact it is learning to learn meaningfully
Teachers usually devote a large amount of their time in making their pupil learn information collected by others. But acquiring the collection of facts, principles and concepts of not enough. Need of the day is not only to attain mastery over factual information, but students must learn how to use the information they have attained. It is this concept which makes learning meaningful in a real sense.
Two famous cognitive psychologists, Jerome S Bruner and David
Ausubel, have given a convincing explanation of the issue of meaningful learning. Jerome Bruner stresses 2 points on learning.
Ausubel, have given a convincing explanation of the issue of meaningful learning. Jerome Bruner stresses 2 points on learning.
- Students should understand the structure of a body of knowledge rather than memorize the names, dates, places, rules and formulae as isolated fragments.
- They should also learn how to discover what they want to know. Hence it is the duty of the teacher to stress the structure of the field of study as the structure helps in understanding how fundamental ideas relate to one another. A grasp of the structure has a positive effect on understanding and problem solving capacity.
A particular subject may consist of a number of fundamental ideas which are inter-related. The inter-relationship of these ideas with one another is called the structure of the subject. Bruner suggested that when students are helped to grasp the structure of the field of study, their retention is better and thereby comprehension of principles is facilitated for their further application in a variety of situations. This further prepares the child to master more complex knowledge. That is how his learning becomes more and more meaningful.
Bruner further suggested a particular curriculum pattern called a spiral curriculum to promote meaningful learning. This lead us to know when and where children can grasp the meaning of fundamental ideas., like Piaget, Bruner believed that children of different ages represent the knowledge in different ways for example.
- A pre-schoolar thinks of the world in terms of actions. Bruner calls this the enactive mode of representation
- During child hood ideas are represented in terms of pictures or images, it is called the iconic mode of representation
- During adolescence ideas tend to be expressed in verbal form, formulae and symbols, it is called the symbolic mode of representation.
Bruner further states that children at tall ages can grasp the meaning of ideas if presented through their predominant mode or representation. In later years, the same ideas can be re-introduced with more complexity. This practice of re-teaching the same concept in a more complex form later, as the children move through inactive, iconic and symbolic modes of thought is termed as a spiral curriculum pattern by Bruner.
A very common illustration of this pattern is seen when we teach the concept of addition to children. To make clear the concept of 1+2=3, we first give the child one chocolate and then give him two more and ask him, how many chocolates do you have now? Thus, the concept of addition is taught through action. Concrete objects and actual actions make the concept clear to him. This is the enactive mode. Next stage is to use pictures or images. That is the iconic mode. Finally, the child can do various additions orally as soon as the numbers are given. This is the symbolic mode.
Bruner further suggests the approach of discovery learning which favors meaningful learning. According to him, when children are given an opportunity and practice in finding their own solutions to the problems, they develop problem solving skills and also gain confidence in the leaning process. They learn “how to learn” as they move further. As an example of this discovery approach, Bruner says ‘instead of making the 5th grade children memorize a set of facts from geography, give them blank outline maps which show the location of rivers, lakes, mountains, valleys, plain, etc. Ask the children to mark where major cities, rail routes and highways can be located with the help of their previous knowledge and reasoning’.
Criticism of the Discovery Approach
- It is not useful for primary class children allow achievers
- All discovery sessions may not be fruitful. Some may be waste of time.
- Students may become frustrated as only brighter ones may dominate the scene. This in turn may lead to jealousy, feeling of inferiority etc.
- Group discussion does not give equal chances of participation to all the students.
But this does not mean that discovery approach is not useful. It can be used by creating a relaxed atmosphere, by arranging the learning experiences properly, by structuring the discussion and by creating co-operating attitude in the class room.
4. What is Motivation? Quoting experimental studies explain its role in
Education process
Motivation is essential to the operation of organizations and class room activities. Although motivation is not the basis of learning it imparts dynamism and activity to the process of learning. Experimental studies have confirmed the view that the relations between learning and motivation are no direct. Even today, psychologists are faced with one major obstacle, where the relationship between learning and performance is due to motivation.
‘TO MOTIVATE MEANS TO GET THE STUDENT TO APPLY HIMSELF TO THE LEARNINAT AHAND”
“Motivation is to find those approaches that will make the child eager for the kind of learning the school endorses
Bernard H W
“Motivation is the influence of general pattern of activities indicating directing the behavior of the organism.
Johnson
“Motives is that condition of the organism which points it towards to practice of a given task and defines the satisfactory completion of the tasks”
Woodworth
The nature or motivation
Motivation is a state in a person or animal that drives behavior towards some goal. It has 3 aspects
a) A driving state with in the organism that is set in motion by bodily needs environmental stimuli or mental events such as thoughts and memories
b) The behavior aroused and memories
c) The goal towards which the behaviour is directed.
Classification of motivation
I) Thomson’s classification
M.K. Thomson has divided motivation into 2 simple classes
1. Natural Motives:-These are the motives found existing in every human being from the moment of birth. This include hunger, thirst, the need for security etc and it is through these that human life develops
2. Artificial motives:- These motives developing the individual as a result of the environment. Their basis is provided by the natural motives, but under the convert of socialization. Example of artificial motives is desire for the respect and status in society, formulation of social relationship etc.
II) Maslow’s classification
Maslow’s theory as well as classification of motives is out great importance in education. He has laid more emphasis on needs, argued that it is the intensity.
I. Physiological needs
II. Safety
III. Love and belongingness
IV. Esteem need
V. Self actualization
In maslow’s opinion, motives can be devided into 2 classes (i) Inborn motives:- These include hunger, thirst, safety, sex etc. (ii). Acquired motives:-These include motives generated by the environment. Maslow has further subdivided acquired motives into 2 categories 1). Social motives. 2) Individual motives.
Motivation and Education
Motivation is a subject of profound importance in education. The importance of motivation in education can be seen in the following manner
1. Development of believes, convictions., assumptions:-
The purpose of education is the development of conviction which can make the child a productive and responsible citizen. From this purpose, education is imparted to child. On the basis of a definite curriculum. Through motivation a sense of discipline can be developed in the child, beside the child’s character and personality can be moulded in the right pattern through proper motivation
2. Growth of interest and aptitude:-
Motivation can be used for developing interest and aptitude for any specific task or activity. If children lack motivation for performing a particular activity, that activity is usually not learnt at all. In the same way, if the children lack interest in the subjects which are a part of the curriculum, the knowledge of which are apart of the curriculum, the knowledge of those subjects will not be retained for long time, any teaching of this kind can bring about a high level of mental development in the child.
3. Guidance:-
In the present age, one of the main problem facing schools is that students are fund taking no interest in their school work. Through motivation students can be given proper guidance
4. Basis of learning:-
Motivation is the basis of learning. It is related to many aspects of personality.
5. Fulfillment of needs:-
It is desirable for the teacher to begin his teaching work only after taking into consideration the physical, mental, individual and social need of his students. It is important to ensure that students do not regard their lessons as impositions from above
6. Praise and condemnation:-
In teaching praise and condemnation have their own special place and it is for the teacher to use both of them as motivating factors.
Motivation is a force which generates the individual to go ahead to achieve his goal. This force is internal as well as external. Motivation can be given through developing needs, attitudes, interests, habits, emotional set, reward and punishment, competition, knowledge of progress, fear of failure, level of aspiration and creating a suitable environment. Learning gets impetus from motivation. Education is a process of learning and learning is the result of education process. A teacher can create many conditions to motivate the students for successful learning.
5. Describe how psycho analyst, behaviorist, cognitivist, explained motivation theory? State how a behaviourist and cognitivist would differ in the motivation technique in high school classes
“A class room is a social situation with a power structure, including relationship and adult child relationship. Hence most favorable motivational condition need to take all of these factors into account, recognizing that the teacher is both model and reinforcer and in way met fully understood and releaser or intrinsic motives”
Motivation
Although motivation is not the basis of learning. It imparts dynamism and activity to the process of learning. Motivation is what lies behind our behavior the reason we do, what we do. Motivation as a combination of forces which initiate direct and sustain behaviour toward a goal. Motivation is simply “The condition which increases the vigor of responses”
- Motivation is not the end by the means; it provides the way to the end of the goal
- Motivation is no the main by the complementary part of leaning
- Motivation makes clear the behaviour of the individual
The nature of motivation
- A driving state with in the organism that is set in motion by bodily needs environmental stimuli or mental events such as thoughts and memories
- The behaviour aroused and directed by this state
- The goal towards which the behaviour is directed
Theories of motivation
Psychologists have propounded many theories and propositions regarding motivation. Each one seek to elucidate the nature of motivation in its own manner
- Stimulus-response theory
This view propounded by Behaviuoral psychologists, is only modified from the theory of learning. According to this view the entire range of human behaviour can be explained as a response to physical stimulation. It holds that there is no evidence for inferring the presence o any motivation either in the conscious or the unconscious
But this theory represents a very narrow point of view which completely neglects many facts of human experience. Many responses do certainly occur as result of stimuli by this theory fails to explain adequately many responses or activities
- The Physiological theory
According to this theory, many changes continuously occur within the body. And for various reasons, reactions also continue to take place inside the body. Consequently, when some reaction occurs to any specific reaction. Some motivation is inherent in its origins
This theory is known as CMS (Central Motive State
- Self actualization theory
Abraham Maslow developed self actualization theory on the basis of humanistic theory. Maslow’s theory is based on hierarchy of need. Motivation is based on physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, the esteem needs and self actualization needs. This theory emphasized that motivation to work is rooted from physiological to self actualization needs.
- Need theory
This theory has been develop by Murray
- Theory of instinct
The proponents of this theory hold that human behaviour is activated and directed by innate or in born instincts. Willian McDougall propounded this theory. This theory appears to be inadequate because, even if instructive behaviour is accepted to be the basis of motivation, the theory fails to explain many facets of human behaviour.
- Psycho analytic theory
According to Freud, the propounder of this theory, human behaviour is inspired by the desires lying concealed in the unconscious and subconscious mind of the individual. Instincts make their contribution to the human behaviour also, but the prime movers are the unconscious desire. According to Freud a powerful role of unconscious motives in human behaviour.
- Lewin’s theory
According to Kurt Lewin, motivation is an element of higher importance in the process of learning. It derives its belief in motivation from empirical bases. It explains both motivation and learning in terms of bonds in learning, the dynamic nature of learning process, memory, analysis and elaboration, frustration, level of aspiration, determination etc…
In the class room situation we want to use….
We have already said that motivation is conscious effect on the part of teacher either to establish a motive, that is drive urge or desire in pupils so that learning goals will be attained or to link already existing motives with the learning goals.
Obviously, the teacher wants to know how he can discover whether his students have become willing to learn something towards which he has motivated them. The fact can be discovered through the following characteristics
Þ Eagerness
Þ Energy mobilization
Þ Consistency
Þ Achievement of goal and reduction of tension
Þ Concentration of attention
Methods of motivation
How effectively and powerfully motivation acts in a classroom situation is determined by many influencing factors. Motivation in the class is influenced by many factors. The main ones are as followers
1. Needs
2. Attitude
3. Interest
4. Habit
5. Emotional state
6. Reward and punishment
7. Competition
8. Knowledge of progress
9. Fear of failure
10. Level of aspiration
11. Seminars and conferences
12. School environment
Motivation and education
Motivation is a subject of profound importance in education. The child has to perform multifarious activities aimed an atmosphere of praise or blame, acceptance or rejection, and reward or punishment. The importance of motivation in education can be seen in the following manner:-
1) Development of belief, convictions, assumptions.
2) Growth of interest and aptitude
3) Guidance
4) Basis of learning
5) Will to learn
6) Fulfillment of needs
7) Praise and condemnation
Summary
Motivation is a force which generated the individual to go ahead to achieve his goal. This force is internal as well as external. These forces direct manifests and build the behaviour of an individual for getting his achievement.
Motivation is a rationale and mechanic, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour, mental set, drives, goal, relief, incentive etc are the basis of motivation.
6. from your acquaintance with the study of different kinds of intelligence tests, what conclusion will you draw regarding the nature of intelligence/
We can observe the intelligence of and individual only through the tests devised by the psychologists for the assessment of intelligence. Intelligence tests are of various kinds.
1. Intelligence test many be classifies on the basis of method of testing
On the basis of the method employed for testing, intelligence tests have been classifies in to two classes.
I) Individual tests
These tests are administered to one individual at a time. They include performance tests as well as test that require linguistic ability. Some examples of these are Stanford Binet Intelligence test, Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence test, Koh’s Block Design Test etc. These tests are particularly appropriate for testing individuals, but they are expensive and time consuming. Administration of such tests requires more expert training.
II) Group tests
In this category the tests are administered upon in large number of examinees simultaneously. The group intelligence test of the state bureau of psychology is an example. Such tests are more objective and less expensive compared to individual tests, they are less useful for solving problems of individuals. They have proved really useful for the purpose of educational and vocational guidance.
2. Classification based on the medium used.
In terms of medium used in the test, intelligence tests are devided into two categories.
I. Verbal tests
This denotes tests in which questions are asked orally or in written forms for which answers have to be given in oral or written language. These tests are not intended for, and cannot be used in the case of illiterates and small children etc.
II. Non verbal tests
These include tests that do not require the use of language, but could be manipulated using figures, pictures, blocks or even other objects. Examples of it are Pidgon’s non verbal tests and Ravens Progressive Matrixes. Their advantage is that they can be used for testing subjects who lack language ability.
Performance tests of intelligence
These tests measure through some sort of performances of the testee the ability to see relations and solve problems given in a concrete form. For measuring intelligence of persons with a language handicap arising out of deafness or speech defect or cultural variations, this type of tests are widely used. Obviously, it is a non verbal test.
1. The Pinter Pattern Scale:- This has been the first major attempt to develop a standardized series of performance tests. Items in the test were taken form the work of Segum from board. Healy Picture Completion test, Knox Form Board, Ship Test, Cube Test etc. The scale consists of fifteen subtests.
2. The Arthur’s point scale:- This scale has been developed by Grade Arthur By adopting a point scale than the Median Mental Age for the method of seeing. This consists of five tests. They are Knox cube, Seguin
3. Bhatia’s Performance Test:- Koh’s Block Design Test, Alexander’s Pass Along Test, Pattern Drawing Test, Immediate memory of Sounds and Picture Complexion Test are for subtests included in this battery.
4. Wechsler Bellerue Intelligence Scale (WBIS):- This scale published in 1939, was developed and standardized by David Wechsler of Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital
This test has three different scales and come into existence.
A. Wechsler Pre-School
B. Wechsler Intelligence scale for Children (WISC):- Designed for the school children in the age group of 6 to 16.
C. Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale:- It is an individual test which has the unique quality of being simultaneously a verbal as well as a performance scale. The scale consists of eleven subtests. Six sub tests make up the verbal scale and five other compromises the performance scale.
I). Test of Scales
1. Test of general Information
2. Test of General Comprehension
3. Test of Arithmetic Reasoning
4. Test of description between similarities
5. Test of digit span.
6. Test of Vocabulary
II). Test of Scale
7. Digit symbol test
8. Picture complexion test
9. Block Design test
10. Picture arrangement test
11. Object assembly test.
The scores on these sub tests are added together to assess the subject intelligence.
Culture-Specific, Culture free and Culture fair intelligence test.
1. Culture Specific Test:-
A culture specific intelligence test is one that contains items related to knowledge and experiences of a specific culture or sub culture and validated in terms of their accuracy in predicting educational, vocational and social competence within those specific cultures and sub cultures.
2. Culture free test:-
A culture free intelligence test is one that contains items free of cultural content and context. Such tests are prepared by eliminating items that are culturally loaded and hence the test scores are not influenced by language, acquired skills and experiences of any specific culture or sub culture. The first culture free test was prepared by Cattel in 1933. This test contains problem solving items that do not occur specially in any culture.
3. Culture fair test:- A culture fair intelligence test is one that contains items that are common to all cultures. Hence, the test scores do not favour people from any particular culture. Culture fair tests are language free and attempt to eliminate culturally determined values and attitudes.
Some of the common abilities measured by intelligence test:-
1. Numerical reasoning
2. Analogies
3. Classification
4. Spatial relations
5. Logical selection
6. Synonyms
7. Practical judgment
8. Verbal comprehension
9. Memory
10. Problem solving
Advantages of intelligence tests
1. Intelligence tests are used for the purpose of making selection of suitable candidates
for admission to courses that demand different levels of intelligence.
2. Intelligence tests help the teacher to classify students into homogeneous groups for
providing individualized instruction.
3. Scores obtained in intelligence tests can motivate individuals to reach higher levels in the ladder.
4. Intelligence tests help in revealing the potentialities of an individual and in this way make possible the prediction of one’s success in a particular field
5. Intelligence tests help to detect the exceptional children such as gifted, backward and mentally retarded. This in turn helps the teacher organize appropriate compensatory services.
6. Intelligence tests help in the diagnosis of problematic behaviour of the child.
7. Intelligence testing has been proved to be very useful in psychological, sociological and educational research
Drawbacks
1. Intelligence cannot be measured in the way a cardiologist measures heart beat or an occultist measures eyesight. No intelligence tests by it self or in combination with others can never measure the true psyche potential or mental functioning of an individual. At the most they can assess the I.Q rather than the real cognitive ability of an individual.
2. It is very difficult to find equal values of I.Q. with the help of different I.Q. tests.
3. No intelligence tests, including the most refined performance tests, can be claimed as culture free or culture fair tests.
4. In fact, intelligence tests are of little help in determining a child’s overall potentiality because they do not go beyond the subject’s cognitivity abilities. No conclusions can be drawn from these about one’s aspiration, motives, aptitudes, attitudes, interests, likes and dislikes, and personal choices etc.
5. The I.Q. scores of the tests are highly influenced by the conditions prevailing at the time the intelligence tests are administered. Physical conditions such as mental and physical fatigue and ailments seem to interfere with performance. Test anxiety is another factor, Emotional and psychological factors may also present obstacles.
It may be concluded that too much reliance can not be placed on the results of intelligence testing. These should not be accepted as the sole measure of the likelihood of success in school achievements, profession and future life. The result of achievement tests, interest inventory, attitude scale, motives measurement etc; should also be considered along with I.Q. scores while making any decision about the education, profession for future life of the subject
7. “Personality is a dynamic growing entity” What is meant by this statement? Discuss the factors influence personality development from birth to maturity?
Personality is a dynamic and continuously in the process of change and modification. It is the everything that a person has about him. It gives him all that is needed for his unique adjustment to his environment. The process of making adjustment is continuous. One has to struggle with the environmental as well as the inner forces throughout ones life. As a result, one has to modify and change ones personality patterns and this makes the nature of personality dynamic. Entity means the essence of a person.
“G.W.Alport studied nearly fifty views about personality and then he arrived at the following definition.
“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.
The words used are full of meaning. It is a dynamic organization its elements are pattered or organized in a unique way and this patterning directs the individuals activity; it is psychological mind and body function together to produce an individual personality; behaviour and thought are charecterists in that a particular pattern applies to one persona and to no their every individual is unique
I. Determinants of personality
1. Personal factors.
2. Environmental factors
1. Personal factors.
This includes
1. Physical structure of the individual
2. Emotional reaction of the individual
3. Attitudes of the individual
4. Interests of the individual
5. Motivation of the individual, and
6. Intellectual level of the individual
2. Environmental factors
This implies effect of social environment which comprise
1. Family
2. Culture of the group
HERIDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
The much mentioned’ heredity versus environment is misconception. We should talk of ‘heredity in the environment’. Both heredity and environment are essential for development. Hence any trait of the individual is the ‘product’ of heredity and environment. The individual does not equal heredity+environment but doesn’t equal heredity × environment. Heredity sets the probable biological limit, whereas environment determines the level up to which the development is possible. Every development is due to an interaction of heredity and environment.
Personality may be compared to a rectangle. Heredity makes the base while environment the attitude. A rectangle cannot exist without either of the two.
Personality =heredity × environment
Sometimes heredity plays a major role in the development of personality and sometimes environment. However, both play their roles. In case both the base i.e., heredity and attitude i.e., the environment are inferior, we shall have jacks and kalik heredity and environment as offspring’s.
The hereditarians
Many psychologists are of the view that the inborn nature is the chief factor in the development of the personality of an individual and it solely determines the possibilities to which child can be educated. They don’t fine any weightage on the influence of the environment. They argue that heredity and is the attitude base on which the edifice of the personality is to be raised. The teacher is the builder of the personality of the child and no builder can overlook the base. The teacher, therefore, must study the base and its limitations, before he ventures make construction/
Biologically heredity may be defined as the sum total of traits initially present in the fertilized ovum. The heredity factors which contribute the development of the individual are called genes. Genes are the minute structure occurring the nucleus of living cells.
The environmentalists and social heredity
The environmentalists give all credit to nurture. They are convinced that the personality of an individual may be developed to any level according to nurture.
The heredity of an individual is contained in the seed while the environment factors are physical and social stimuli, such as the sunlight, soil, temperature etc. and tradition, customs, rites, code of ethics, literature etc.
Social heredity should not be confused with biological heredity; they are born into a social one. If we look to the culture and civilization of any age and form a notion of the vast network of highly organized institutions and traditions, manners and customs, legal and moral codes, knowledge, technique and skill, art, literature, and religions ideals and values. We can very easily form a correct notion of social heredity. A child is the heir to all ages. Social heredity is a form of educational environment that affects more than a single generation.
8. Explain the concept of growth, development and maturation as differentiated from one another. Discuss their implications in teaching learning process.
Human life starts from a single fertilized cell. The constant interaction with the environment results in the growth and development of the innate capacities, abilities, and potentialities of the child. An individual starting from a fertilized egg turns into a full fledged human adult. In this turn over process he undergoes a cycle of changes brought about by the process of growth and development in various dimensions-physical, mental, social, emotional etc. Therefore in the wider sense both the term growth and development can be used for any change brought about by maturation and learning and essentially is the product of both heredity and environment.
Meaning and characteristics of development
The term development means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience. As Van Den Dacle has pointed out ‘development implies quantitative change’. This means that development does not consist merely of adding inches to ones height or of improving ability. Instead it is a complex process of integrating many structures and functions.
Principles of development
Þ Development follows a definite and predictable pattern
Þ All individual are different
Þ Each phase of development has characteristic behaviour
Þ Development is a product of interaction
Þ Development is a continuous process
Þ Development proceeds from general to specific
Þ Principle of integration:- Development involves a movement from the whole to the parts and from the parts to the whole
Þ Principles of inter action:- growth and development are interrelated
Þ Development is predictable
Þ Development is spiral and not linear
Þ Growth and development as a joint product of both heredity and environment
Growth and its characteristics
Crow and crow suggests that growth refers to structural and psychological changes. Growth is regarded as multiplication of cells. Growth has following characteristics
Þ Growth is not a continuous process. It stops with maturity
Þ It is cumulative in nature
Þ Rate of growth is not uniform
Þ Growth takes place at different rates for different parts of the body
Þ There is marked individual difference in growth
Þ Growth follows a definite sequence or pattern
Þ Growth is a complex process
Þ Growth is influenced by heredity and environment
Maturation
Maturation is the unfolding of the individuals inherent traits. In phylogenic functions which are common to the human race such as creeping, sitting and walking. Development comes from maturation. Learning in the form of training, is of little advantages although controlling the environment to reduce opportunities for practice may retard development. Maturation provides the raw material for leaning and determines the more general patterns and sequences of bahaviour.
Educational implication
Þ There are wide individual differences among the children with respect to their rate of growth and development. There fore we must pay attention to their individual pattern and growth rate while planning the course for their education and development
Þ Its knowledge helps us to know what to expect and when to expect from an individual child with respect to his physical, mental, social development etc. at different stages of development. The correct knowledge of the growth stages of a child helps the parents and teacher not to under or over estimate the future competency of their child
Þ It helps us to know the direction as well as general pattern of development. It guides us to locate the degree of abnormality in our children and students and to take like wise remedial steps.
Þ Principles of inter relation and inter dependence of the various aspects of growth and development helps us to aim for the harmonious growth and development of the personality of the child and warn us not to develop a particular aspects at the cost of one or the other.
Þ The knowledge of the uniformity of pattern with respect to growth and development makes it possible for the parents and teacher to plan ahead of time for the changes that will takes place in their children. Children will also get benefited. If they can be acquainted with these changes before hand.
Þ The knowledge that heredity and environment both play a joint role in the profess of growth and development helps us to pay sufficient attention over the environment helps us to pay sufficient attention over the environment condition in upbringing the children.
9. What do you understand by schools of psychology? Briefly discuss the major contributions of schools of psychology to development of educational psychology
The word ‘psychology’ has originated from two Greek words psyche and logos which mean soul and science respectively. Thus originally psychology was considered as the science of soul. Subsequently the meaning of psychology has undergone many changes from time to time. It came to be described as the science of mind, the science of consciousness and the science of behaviour. According to Crow and Crow: ‘psychology is the study of human behavior and human relationships’. To skinner psychology is the science of behaviour and experience.
Psychology owes its origin t philosophy to birth a number of school or system of psychology such as structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, psycho analysis. The emergence of these systems or school of thought not only influenced the development of various trends and approaches for assessment of behaviour but also affected the processes and products of education.
Structuralism
Psychology as an independent discipline, free from mother field philosophy is only a little over one hundred and fifty years old. Its revolution into scientific discipline is largely due to Wilhelm Wundt. He was a Germen psychologist and a professor of philosophy at the University of Leipzig
Wundt conducted experiments related to conscious experience. By this he meant thoughts, feelings, sensations perceptions and ideas that are immediate and unbiased by time. He used introspection- self observation as the method for collecting information.
This school of psychology could not flourish much as introspection was found to be not a very valid to obtain scientific information. But with the work of Wundt the foundations of scientific psychology were truly laid
Merits of structuralism and its contributions to education
1) Structuralism helped in establishing psychology as an independent and organized discipline by separate it from philosophy and metaphysics.
2) It provided introspection as a method of studying behaviour. Introspection is the only suitable technique that can be employed in extracting such reports. Consequently studies in educational psychology can be benefit from the use of this method.
3) Structuralism is credited with having taken the initiative in establishing the first psychologic laboratory and employing the technique of systematic observation of the activities of mind. It has resulted in making psychology a subject of scientific study and experimentation.
Functionalism
Functionalists emphasized that merely knowing about the structure or composition of mind is of little value as compared to its activities and functions William James (1842-1914), the father of psychology in U.S.A.
James wording in the opening line of his book ‘Principles of psychology’. “Psychology is the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and science of mental life. Both of their condition”. James described as a mental life as a continuous and flowing unity, a streams
Merits of functionalism and its contributions to education
1) It laid emphasis on functionablity of the contents of curriculum by advocating that only those things should be taught to be the children which they could apply in every day life.
2) This system widened scope of psychology by developing a vicinity of new method beyond introspection for studying behaviour mainly based on scientific inquiry, systematic data collection and objective interpretation and by including in its sphere the study of many useful topics not covered by structuralism.
3) Functionalism opened the way for the study of psychology in terms of the adjustment of the organism to its environment. The study and problems of the individual, normal as well as abnormal, were incorporated in the subject matter of psychology and educational psychology
Behaviourism
In 1913 John Watson, an American psychologist began emphasizing the study of bahaviour in contrast to the study of structure and functions of the mind. Thus he broke away both from structuralism and functionalism and propagated that the study of mental states consciousness is futile consciousness cannot be explained, located and measured.
Watson rejected introspection is the method of psychology and instead focused only on those things can be observed and objectively recorded. A thought cannot be gauged but the behaviour that results from the thought can be observed and judged. Thus Watson founded a school of psychology which was named as behaviourism.
Merits of behaviourism and its contributions to education
1) The approach dealing with abnormal and mental sick person as well as delinquent, maladjusted backward and problem children was also drastically changed on account of the experimental findings of the behaviorists
2) Since behavioursits did not believe in entitities like the ‘mind’ and the mind body problem, the mental approach to behaviour was altogether discarded. As a result all concept related to the doctrine of mentalism like sensation, emotion, perception were dropped from psychology and education texts, giving way to new concepts like stimulus, response, habits learning and conditioning.
3) Behaviourism helped. In extending the scope of education psychology to include the study of animals as away to lean more about human nature
4) Behaviourism highlighted the role of motivation and definition of the aims and purpose in leaning and shaping of behavior.
Gestalt Psychology
Max Wertheimer, Koffka and Kohler were three German psychologists who criticized structuralism fro m another points views than Watson’s. According to these psychologists who are also known as Gestalts mental life cannot be divided in to elements.
“Gestalt” is a German word, the nearest English translation of which is configuration or more simply. Therefore, Gestalt psychologist is opposed to the atomistic and molecular approach to behaviour. According to it, and individual perceives the things as a whole and not as a mere collection of its constituents on elements. To a Gestalt psychologists, the menaning of sensation or perception are always involves a problem of organization. Gestalts also projected the mechanistic approach to behaviour as advocated by the behaviorists through a simple stimulus response connection. They asserted that a sort of organization definitely exists between the stimulus and response which helps in forming a new gestalt or an organized whole. For example, when one looks at a tree what one sees is a tree. The gestalts further claim that when the components of thing are brought together by the mind something new may emerge, reinforcing the statement. The whole is different from the sum of its parts. As a result, human behaviour is characterized as an intelligent behaviour rather than a simple stimulus response mechanism.
Merits of Gestalt psychology and its contributions to education
1. Gestalts laid great emphasis on the role of motivation and definite goals and purposes in any type of learning. This has resulted in providing a central role to motivation in any scheme of learning and education. The emphasis on setting clear cut objectives, defining them in definite behavioral terms and linking education with the needs and motives of the learner may be said to be some of the great contribution of psychology.
2. Gestaltism has a notable feature that it makes the task of perception, learning and problem solving an intelligent task rather than a piecemeal molecular function on a mere stimulus response mechanical process. It has provided a scientist and progressive method of problem solving based on the cognitive abilities of the learners.
3. Gestaltism has necessitated research in the field of organizational climate, institutional planning, group dynamic etc. for organizing the factors in the environment of the learners in to a meaningful whole so as to put in the best efforts for managing the affairs of education and welfare of the individuals.
School of psycho analysis
Psycho analysis as a system on school of psychology was the brain child of Sigmund Freud, a Venice
Humanist psychology
This new school of psychology reflects in the recent trends of humanism in psychology. Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollow May, Arthur, combs Gordon, Allport etc. It gives more value to human being by not considering him merely as sophisticated machine, victim of conflict between the ego and the Id.
10. Thurston’s and Thorndike’s theories of nature of intelligence?
Philsophists and psychologists developed various theories as regards the nature of intelligence. Thurston and Thorndike is the most prominent psychologist. They introduced this view regarding the theory of intelligence
Thurston’s group factor theory
Louis L Thurston, an American psychologist. He was of the view that intelligence could not be regarded as a unitary thing. He concluded that there is no one general factor ‘G’. He proposed that intelligence consists of a number of primary abilities which different people have in varying carious tests. Using a method of factor analysis that was suitable for analyzing many factor analysis that was suitable for analyzing many factor analysis that was suitable for analyzing many factors at once centroid method. He identified the following factors as primary mental abilities
1) Numeral ability
The ability to calculate or which is usually known as mathematical ability.
2) Verbal fluency
This is the ability to deal with relationship expressed in words. It also includes the ability in the use of words.
3) Verbal comprehension
This refers to one’s vocabulary or the knowledge of words and their meanings.
4) Rote memory
This is the ability to memorise verbal materials as measured by the usual methods of recall and recognition
5) Perceptual speed
The ability finds out quickly similarities and differences in groups of designs
6) Spatial relations
This deals with one’s ability to find out relationship among objects in space by quickly visualizing the three dimensional factor or space
7) Inductive reasoning
This is the ability which is usually dealt with in logic while examining a series of facts of data to find out a general principle running through them.
8) Deductive reasoning
This is also an ability which is commonly dealt with in logic. This deals with one’s ability to apply a given general principle to a particular situation.
Multi factor theory – E.L. Thorndike
Multifactor theory of intelligence developed by E.L. Thorndike, an American Psychologist. He was an associationist who opposed the theory of general intelligence. He proposed that these are specific stimuli and specific responses. Intelligence is nothing more than a convenient name for an almost infinite number of actual or potential specific connections between these stimuli and responses. Differences of intelligence among people are due to the number of connections in the neurological system. According to this theory there no general intelligence. Thorndike theory is atomistic theory of intelligence. He distinguished four attributes of intelligence.
a) Level: - This attribute refers to the difficulty of task that can be solved. If we think of all tasks to test items arranged in sequential order of increasing difficulty then the height that we can attain in this ladder of difficulty determinants our levels or attitude of intelligence level is the important factor of intellect, but we cannot measure it alone.
b) Range: - Range or width refers to the number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty that we can solve. Theoretically, an individual, possessing a given level of intelligence should be able to solve the whole range or task at that level. Range of intellectual growth is determined not only by level but also bridth of experience and opportunity to learn. In intelligence tests, range is represented items of equal difficulty. We cannot measure attitude without range or width.
a) Area: - Areas in test means the total number of situations at each levels to which the individual is able to respond. Area is a summation of all the ranges at each level of intelligence processed by an individual. It is in general highly correlated with attitude level.
b) Speed: - This is the rapidity with which can respond to test items speed and attitude are positively correlated.
Every intelligence test consist those four attributes. When we test a person, we give him certain number of tasks (area) and these tasks vary in difficulty (attitude). There is certain number of items at each level of difficulty (range) and they are responded in a given time (speed). Emphasis on the aspect of these attributes varies from test to test
11. What are the methods of study of educational psychology? How do they differ from one another in terms of purposes and modes of operation?
Psychology is termed a scientific study of behaviour. For that study it takes the help of various methods. All that methods have their own strengths and weaknesses and possess some unique characteristics which make them highly specific in a particular situation. A wise investigator should have a deep idea in to the nature of his subject, his problems the environmental surroundings and the resources at hand and accordingly select a proper method or methods to keep him as a scientific and objective as possible for deriving the best possible results from his study.
The most common methods of study Educational psychology as follows.
Observation method
Observation method consists of the perception of an individual’s behaviour under natural conditions by the other individuals and the interpretation and analysis of this perceived behaviour by them. By this method we can infer the mental processes of other persons through the observation of their external behaviour. It is an indirect approach. This method is economical, natural as well as flexible. It occupies a leading role in the study of human behaviour.
This method cannot be termed as sufficiently objective, reliable and valid. i.e., in cases of hypocrisy the method of observation proves a failure in judging the true nature of the individual concerned. Subjectivity of the investigator also affects the result of observation. Another important limitation is to establish the proper cause and effect relationship of the phenomena.
Experimental method
Experimental method is considered as a most scientific and objective method for studying bahaviour. Here we try to study the cause and effect relationship regarding the nature of human behaviour by performing experiments i.e., the objective observations under rigidly controlled laboratory like conditions. The key factor to this method is the controlling of conditions or variables. There are 3 types of variables – independent, dependent and intervening. Independent variable stands for the cause and dependent for the effect of that cause. The other conditions or influence those cause and effect relationships are called intervening variables. In an experiment all such variables are needed to be controlled.
Clinical Case Study
Clinical case study method helps in the diagnosis and treatment of the problem or exceptional behaviour of an individual. Diagnosis may be carried out through an adequate physical check up, building up a comprehensive history, arranging clinical interview, using relevant tests and measuring devices and observing the clients behaviour in natural surroundings. Treatment is usually of two kinds
1. Modifying the environmental forces
2. Modifying the client’s attitude to help him adjust to his environment
Interview
It is defined as a technique or method for the investigation of behaviour by getting information directly from the subject about his behaviour in face to face contact or relationship. It needs to establish a proper rapport, pre-planning in terms of the set objectives, questions asked, recording of the responses and proper analysis or interpretation of the recorded responses. Interview proves quite beneficial in terms of getting cent per cent answers to the questions asked and getting most confidential information on the spot. How ever, it suffers from the subjective bias of the interviewer and possibility of hiding so many things of one’s behaviour on the part of the individual concerned. It also proves too costly to arrange for the interview for the investigation of the individual’s behaviour.
A comparison of various methods
Though observation method has so many advantages, there some disadvantages also. That we have discussed. Being an M Ed student we must know about the quantitative reaches. Experiment method can be termed as a quantitative one. It has so many limitations. The dynamic nature of human behaviour may affect the result. This method is costly and time consuming one.
Clinical approach is an art as well as a science, and technology which means that every body cannot treat every patient and it derives pleasure I making meaning healthier and better. Diagnosis is the major, step for this approach.
Interview method is relatively a flexible tool. It permits explanation, adjustment and variations according to the situation and thus proves one of the essential and important tools for the investigation of behaviour. It has some limitations. It is often held in artificial situation. It suffers from the subjective bias of the interviewer; it needs a well trained competent interviewer. It is costly in terms of the labour, time and money.
Conclusion
The scientific method of psychology can be deeply study the above methods. Every method has merits and demerits. So we should choose the best for our study purpose.
12. Define personality? What measure would you adopt to measure the personality of a teacher?
The term personality has been defined differently by different psychologists.
“Personality is the sum total of all the biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, aptitudes and instincts of the individual and the acquired disposition and tendencies”. –Morton Prince
“Personality is the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observations over a long enough period f time to give reliable information” –Watson
“Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation”-Cattell
In view of the foregoing definitions regarding its characteristics and scope, as a practical definition, it may be said that, “personality is a complex blend of a constantly evolving and changing pattern of one’s unique behaviour, emerged as a result of one’s interaction with one’s environment and directed towards some specific ends”.
Psychology employs a number of methods by which it measure personality, eg:- situation test, psycho analytic test and projective method, interview and questionnaire and rating method have their own importance.
We can measure the personality of teacher with the help of various methods of personality measurements. The following are the major method of personality measurement.
1. Case history method
In this method, as the name obviously indicated, the facts concerning the life of the subject are collected. This case history supplied all the large and small facts related to his environment and heredity. This method can be used to study both normal and abnormal people’s personalities but it needs very experimental examiners.
2. Interview method
The interview method is the most normal of all the method for the study of personality. It is the method widely used in the selection of people for government services. In this subject and the examiner sit facing each other while the former answers question asked by the latter.
3. Questionnaire method
Questionnaire has been used extensively in the investigation of personality. The name suggests that it is the list of selected questions; the answers to which throw light upon the peculiarities of personality. Questionnaires are used to gain knowledge of traits like self confidence, sociability etc.
4. Performance method
The performance method was conceived by May and itartahorne, in this method the subject is given a variety of specific jobs to be performed and the subtle quality of his personality examined.
5. Rating method
Another method of measuring personality is the rating method, in which roughly the work is done in two ways. One, the subject is asked to answer questions related to traits of personality. The answers which the subject offers or the answers which he selects indicate hid personality.
6. Situation test
As usual, the name suggests the nature of the method. In it, the subject is placed in some specific situations and the traits of his personality are ascertained. Actually it resembles the performance method; the difference lying in the fact that in this case the person is placed in a situation while in the performance method he is given some work to do. Most psychologists have identified the two together, rendering separate discussion indispensable.
7. Projective techniques
The most famous and popular of all the methods for the investigation of personality is the projective method. Its name suffers the fact that it is founded upon their element of projection. Projection means the observation of some specific thing in something or action; according to one’s personality and mental state.
Many peculiarities of the personality are investigated by an analysis of this projection and a comparison of it with the projections effected by others.
Some common projective techniques are following
a) Rorschach ink blot test
This test was conceived by Swiss scientist Hermann Rorschach. He used 10 original inkblot cards which are still in use today. There is no picture made in these blots. Five of these are black, two black and red and other three multicolored. To investigate personality, they are exhibited before the subject one after the other and he is asked to describe everything he sees in the blot. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These cards are shown to the subject for a second time and he is asked to point out the location, of whatever he had seen on the blot. In order to establish the meaning of the subject’s reaction to the blots, the psychologist analyses the location, deciding factors and the subject.
Besides the above analysis, facts like the fine taken by the subject to react to the whole blot, the number of activities which he did and whether he did them normally or not, are also noted observed. All these things tend to help in the analysis and investigation of the unconscious of the subject. But maximum efforts must need to make this test scientific.
b) Murray
The founder of this test, Murray
Word Association Test, Picture Association Test, Dramatic Production Test, Man Drawing Test etc are other projective tools which are not so important as to need description.
13. What are the various causes of behavioural problem I children. As a teacher a child with a special problem. Illustrate with an example.
The term “problem” can be described as something that is perplexing and requires a solution. Behavioural problems are the problems which need problematic behaviours are those that are perplexing and trouble some and that call for a solution.
Of all living organism in the world, humans have complex and diverse behaviour. Human behaviour is characterized by the complexity and diversity since it stems from multiple influences and their continuous interactions.
Causes of behavioural problems
Behavioural problems are nothing but the manifestation of improper/abnormal cognitive and affective functioning. They are the result of interactions among variables such as biological structure and function, inheritance, cognition, social emotional factors, family, peers, social class, culture and situational settings.
Behavioural problems are also referred to by various labels such as behavioural disturbances, behavioural dysfunction’s, behavioural problems, psychological problems, abnormal behaviour, maladaptive behaviour, impairments, deficiencies, deficits and psycho pathology. Guidelines for identifying or diagnosing behavioural disorders are relatively based on making decision so f what or what is not problematic.
Behavioural problems are often viewed as an ‘abnormality’. Generally, it is believed that any deviation of behaviour from the expected standard or norm is harmful in some way to the individual and results in disorder. Behaviour problems have also been defined as a failure of function adequately towards achieving some sense of personal well being and making some contribution larger social group.
Judgment about behaviour calls for the developmental norms also. If a three year old baby is notable to walk or to sit without support, it normally gives rise to concern. Similarly children sometimes act their age but fail to progress. This is known as ‘regression’. I a child display fear in excessive number of situations and if it does not fade away with the passage of time, then ‘fearfulness’ becomes a problem.
Children display a variety of behavioural, emotional, social, learning and physical problems. The behavioural perspective of problem was set into notion by J.B. Watson (1913). The central concept of this perspective is that childhood disorders are learned in the same way that other behaviours are learned.
Models of treatment for behavioural problems
The perspective that a psycho pathologist adopts decides the style of treatment offered.
Parent training
It is generally agreed by the professionals that change in the child’s behaviour may be effected by producing changes in the way that the parents manage the child. It is only the parent’s perception, along with the child’s actual behaviour, that has led the child being referred for treatment. Parent training has led the child being referred for treatment. Parent training modes have been applied to a wide variety of childhood behavioural problems
Treatment in residential settings
When the behavioural problems of the children become very severe, residential treatment is considered to be the best mode of intervention. Residential treatment may be offered in group homes, child psychiatry units in medical hospitals, units in non medical settings, and juvenile homes. It is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of these treatment services.
Pharmacological treatment
The interventions offered for a variety of childhood behavioural problem include pharmacological treatment. Medications that affect mood, thought processes or overt behaviour are called ‘psychotropic’ or ‘psychoactive’. Treating behaviour problem by prescribing such medications is often referred to as ‘psychopharmacological treatment’.
Depression as a behavioural problem
Treatments for depressed children have been mostly adapted from the intervention to depressed adults. Treatment includes both pharmacological measures.
A professional with a behavioural or social learning perspective is expected to offer treatments that are action oriented and he/she focuses on present problems, assuming that treatment is an earning process governed by principles common to all learning situations. If the concerned behaviour problem is thought to be arising out of a combination of influences, a professional tends to employ several modes of treatment.
I. Indiviudal and group pathology
Psychotherapy aims to offer a typical one to one verbal experience. This is the most common mode of treatment for children. Treatment is also offered in groups. Whether the mode of treatment is in individual or in group format; psychotherapy views verbal forms as an ideal form of intervention, particularly with older children and adolescent. It is generally believed that the need to alter treatment procedure in accordance with the child’s cognitive as well as emotional level of development should be realized. Realization of this need has given rise to non verbal modes of treatment for very young children…
II. Play Therapy
A very common mode of behaviour therapy is play. Since play activities have much importance in the development of young children, play as a therapeutic vehicle has its own advantages. It remains a solution to deal with the children of lesser verbal abilities. Most practitioners have accepted the play as a means of communications. Emphasis over the inclusion of play in the treatment of children was first made by the therapist, Melanie Klein (1932) and cognitive behavioural measures. As a teacher I will focus on educating and modifying the child’s maladaptive cognitions like problematic attributions, excessively high standards, negative self monitoring and so on. Behavioural aspects of treatment aim at increasing pleasurable experiences, social skills and improving communication, conflict resolution and social problem solving skills.
14. Hull
In his theory Hull
Primary reinforcement tendered to strengthen certain behaviour through the satisfaction of basic biological needs, drives or drive stimuli. Secondary reinforcement is brought about by an originally neutral stimulus like money by association with a primary reinforcing agency.
According to Hull
Another concept in Hull Hull
Another concept elaborated by Hull
Reaction potential = S E r =sHr×D×V×K
Where sHr is the habit strength
D is the strength of the drive
V is the Power of intensity of a stimulus
K is the degree of the attractive (intensive) ness of popular reward.
Since all the four factors are multiplied in contributory towards the building of reaction potential. If any one had a value of zero, reaction potential would be zero.
In his theory of behaviour Hull
1. Reaction inhibition (Ir)
2. Conditional Inhibition (Slr)
Reaction inhibition caused by the internal physiological and biochemical nature of the individual
Conditional inhibition caused by the psychological and environmental factors. Both of these two types of inhibition work together in exercising the overall effect of reducing the probability of occurrence. They result in the effective reaction potential symbolized as SEr
SEr= (SHr×D×V×K)-Ir+Slr
i.e., S E r=Reaction potential-inhibition
In the course of his experiments Hull
He asserted that it happens on account of the variation brought about in the inhibitory potential of an individual from moment to moment depending on several internal and external factors. This continuously changing inhibitory potential was named as oscillation effect.
SEr= ((SHr×D×V×K)-I)-sOr
This momentary effective reaction potential is responsible for the occurrence of a learned response. Hull
- The value of momentary effective reaction potential must exceed a certain value collected reaction threshold. (SLr) in order to emit a learned response
- The probability of a learned response (P) is increased to the extent that the value of the MER potential is higher that the value of the reaction threshold.
- The greater the value SEr the shorter will be the latency.
- The larger value of the SEr increases the power of resistance for the extinction of a learned response.
- The magnitude of an emitted learned response termed as aptitude (A) is directly related to the size of the SEr.
15. Briefly describe the dynamics of personality development as viewed by Freud. Mention the class room implication of this theory.
Psycho analysis as a system or school of psychology was the brain child of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) a Venice
Life and death instincts
Freud believed in the role of instinct in driving human behaviour. He postulated two main instincts namely the life instinct and the death instinct, as the source of all the psyche energy available n man.
One’s life instinct is engaged in the service of one’s life and its main aims are survival and the propagation of the spices. It is manifested through sex and love. Freud gave the name ‘libido’ to the driving force of the life instinct and made it synonymous with the sex urge and sexuality of human beings. The libido believed in the pleasure principle, aroused from any of the organs in the body and through any function, as advocated by Freud, is ultimately sexual in nature, the sex urge or sex motive may be regarded as the dynamic force and centre of all human behaviour at all ages.
The concept of the other instinct, called the death instinct, related to the impulse for destruction, it is manifested through acts of aggression, guilty and even of suicide. Freud held that when one’s life instinct is not allowed to function or to govern one’s behaviour, the death instinct comes in to the picture for operationing behaviour. For example, when one is not permitted to seek sexual gratification or derive pleasure, one is bound to lose one’s balance, suffer frustration which may consequently lead to the destruction one’s self or of others.
Structure of the psyche or mind
Freud, while explaining the structure of the human psyche or mind, divided it in 2 different parts, first by arranging it in to three layers as the conscious, the sub conscious and the unconscious second by postulating three other components viz. ‘id’, ‘ego’ and ‘super ego’.
The concept of conscious, sub conscious and unconscious mind
Here we were to compare the human mind to an ocean, pond or a river, then the upper layer or the surface would represent the conscious mind the main bed would be identified with the subconscious, and the bottom would form the unconscious.
The conscious mind occupies one tenth of our total psyche or mental life, ideas thoughts and images also occur in it. The unconscious mind is the middle portion of the mind, which sores all type of information. In the middle bed or layer of the human mind there lie all experiences or knowledge which have been gained or learned by an individual through various types of experiences or training.
Below the subconscious mind lied the unconscious the most important part of the mind, it contains all the repressed wishes, Desires, feelings, drives and motives many of which relate to sex and aggression. Freud says, that we do and how we behave is always determined by the forces residing in our unconscious and not by the choices of conscious mind.
The concept of Id, Ego and Super Ego
Freud further invented three more concepts the Id, Ego and Super ego for explaining the structure of the psyche and used them in providing a two tier tripartite division of the psyche as may be understood diagrammatically as given under
The id represents the animal in man and is seated in the unconscious. It is the source of the mental energy and all instinctive energy of the individual. It knows no reality follows no rules and considers only the satisfaction of its own needs and drives. It operates according to the pleasure principle. It is quite selfish and unethical.
For the sake of welfare of the individual and of society, the blind id cannot be act at this time of ego and super ego comes in to play.
The super ego is the direct antithesis of Id and represents the ethical and moral aspects of psyche. Id it is also seated in the unconscious but it is not governed by man’s instinctive tendencies or primitive drives. It is idealistic in nature, and perfection is its goal, rather than pleasure seeking or destruction.
Ego acts as intermediate between three sets of force. It also acts a balancing role.
Infantile sexuality and psycho sexual development.
Sex is the life urge therefore, not only of adults but also of infants who manifest sexual desires by sucking the breast of their mother and feeling satisfied. Freud termed this as infantile sexuality. Growing with such need for sex gratification the individual’s psycho sexual developments said to pass thorough certain distinctive stages like the oral stage, the anal stage, and the phallic, latency and genital stage.
The flow of libido
Libido the life maintaining energy, the flow of this energy in terms of the satisfaction of sexual urge is normal and satisfactory. But this flow is repressed or blocked it ends not only in free floating anxiety but also gives birth to serve conflicts leading to mental illness and abnormal behaviour.
Psychoanalysis as a method of studying behaviour and therapy is said to involve steps like 1. Establishing rapport with the subject 2. Analysis of the behaviour of the subject to uncover the underlying causes of the abnormality by adopting techniques like free associations. 3. Synthesis for restructuring and restoring the lost balance of the psyche 4. Breaking the rapport in order to enable the patient to face the realities of life without the support of the analyst.
Anxiety, conflicts and disintegration of personality
Anxiety and conflicts lead an individual to develop in to an abnormal personality. Freud describes anxiety as a painful emotional experience representing a threat or danger to the individual concerned. Whereas in the in the state of fear the source of tension is known in case of anxiety one cannot relate to earlier traumatic experience. Very often it is the result of un discharged sexual impulses- a blocked up libido.
Blocking up or repression of the libido or sexual urge, according to Freud, does not end in free floating anxiety but also gives birth to serve conflicts leading to mental illness and abnormal behaviour. All conflicts in one way or the other represents clashes of the authority and rules of one’s id, ego and super ego. The ego plays a role of moderator. In case the super ego is too strong and dominates the ego of the individual, the anxiety and conflict may give birth to a psychotic personality but in case super ego is not so rigid, than the expression of the repressed libido may result in a less severe form of personality disintegration like neurosis or milder symptoms like headache, back ache, restless.
Class room implications of Freud theory
- In a class room it has given a good method for the study of children’s behaviour.
- It has highlighted the importance of good education and healthy environment in the class room by emphasizing the role of child hood experiences.
- Freud’s concept of the unconscious has helped in understanding the cause of maladaptive behaviour.
- His emphasis on the role of sex in one’s life has brought out the necessity of providing proper sex education to children
- Freud’s system of psycho analysis has called for the provision of proper extra curricular activities and suitable hobbies etc in the class room programmes for the release of repressed or blocked libidinal energy and pent up feelings.
16. Enumerate the components involved in creative thinking. Suggest an instruction strategy helpful to foster creativity in school children
Creativity is the ability to create something. Imagination is the main spring of creativity.
Imagination →Invention →Innovation→Creativity
Whatever is novel, unique, original and unconventional is known as creative.
Right hemisphere of our brain is creative in nature
Creativity is the ability to do things differently and to do think differently
J.P.Guilford speaks of two kinds of thinking namely convergent and divergent thinking.
J.P.Guilford identifies the following characteristics in creative thinking
1. Ability to change one’s approach to a problem
2. Coping with ideas that are both relevant and unusual
3. Going beyond the immediate situation
4. Redefining the problem or some part of it.
Creative ability consists of several abilities of divergent thinking. Divergent thinking stimulated a questioning frame of mind and discourages blind acceptance.
7 abilities of divergent thinking are
- fluency
- flexibility
- originality
- sensitiveness
- elaboration
- guessing ability
- redefinition ability
Characteristics of creativity
- creativity is universal
- creativity carries ego involvement
- creativity is innate as well as acquired
- it is the ability to produce a new or novel
- It is adventurous and open thinking
- creativity and achievement are correlated
- creativity and anxiety often go together
Methods to foster creativity among children
- Freedom to respond: - Parents and teachers often expect fixed response from children. Thus they kill the creativity of child. They should be given adequate freedom to respond to a situation
- Encouraging originality and flexibility:- Originality on the part of children in any form should be encouraged. If a child seeks to change the methods of learning a test or solving a problem, they should be encouraged to do so.
- removal of hesitation and fear:-
- Providing appropriate opportunities and atmosphere for creative expression:- A healthy atmosphere, favorable for creative thinking and expression is essential for the stimulation and nourishment of creativity among children
- Developing healthy habits among children:- Industriousness persistence, self reliance and self confidence are some of the qualities that are helpful in creative output. Children should therefore be helped to imbibe these qualities
- using the creative resources of the communities:- Children should be made to visit the centre of art, scientific and industrial creative work. This may stimulate and inspire them for creative work.
- avoidance of blocks to creative thinking:-Factors like conservation, faculty methods of teaching, unsympathetic treatment, fixed and rigid habits of work, anxiety and frustration, excessively high standards of achievement for low levels of work, over emphasis on school marks etc are block to creativity
- proper organization of the curriculum:- Learning experiences in the form of curricula should be so designed so as to foster creativity among children. For this purpose, the school curriculum should be organized primarily on the basis of concepts rather than facts.
- reform in the evaluation system:-Our education system is totally examination oriented and appropriate reform must, therefore be made in our evaluation system if creativity is to be nurtured. The emphasis on memorization, by rote, fixed and rigid single responses, and convergent thinking etc. which kills creativity of the children should be abandoned and a proper evaluation system should be adopted.
- use of special techniques for fostering creativity:- Researchers in the field of creativity have suggested special techniques and methods for fostering creativity among children
- brain storming
- use of teaching models
- use of gaming techniques
- Teaching by example:-Example is better than percept. Children are very imitative. The teachers and parents who themselves follow the beaten track and do not show any originality for fear of being wrong or never experience the excitement of creating or doing something new, fail to stimulate creativity among the children in their charge. The teachers and parents must therefore themselves develop the habit of creative thinking.
All these will be helpful to foster creativity in school children.
17. Outline the structure and development of personality as propounded by Allport. State briefly the techniques of assessing personality
Gordon W Allport was the first theorist who by rejecting the notion of relatively limited number of personality types and adopted the trait approach for the description of highly individualized personalities. He received gold medal in 1894. he mainly forces n the conscious determinants of human personality. He gave emphasis on rationality, unity of the personality, discontinues between normal and abnormal. He rejected materialistic approach. He completely concentrated on natural science approach.
He considered himself as a systematic pluralist. In 1966, he proposed a epistemological position in research for personality- known as heuristic realism.
According to him, distinction between structure and dynamics of personality is impossible. Personality structure is represented in terms of traits. At the same time the behaviour is motivated by these traits.
Traits according to Allport are the basic units of personality. Allport distinguished 3 types of traits namely
1. Cardinal traits
2. Secondary traits
3. Central traits
Cardinal traits are the primary traits so dominant in one’s personal disposition that the colour virtually every aspect of ones behaviour and attributes. These traits are found limited in number. E.g. If humoursness is the cardinal trait of a person, he will bring a sense of humour into almost all situations irrespective of its actual demands.
Central traits are typical to one. They are most common. They can be easily inferred from the behaviour. According to Allport, for knowing an individuals personality, we need to know 5 to 10 such central traits, e.g. honesty, kindness etc.
Cardinal traits are less common but more specific. These traits combined with a few central traits form the core of characteristic traits responsible for giving uniqueness to one’s personality.
Allport analyzed about 18000 terms taken from a dictionary that could be used by people to describe each other and they finally came up with a total 4541 psychological traits from describing human behaviour.
In this way Allport focused on these large numbers of behavioural traits to describe personality instead of explaing it like other developmental and psychological theorists.
To him, “personality” is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine the unique adjustment to its environment”.
He again redefined it in 1961
“Personality” is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine the characteristic behaviour and thoughts.
Allport’s theory of personality is known not only for its emphasis on traits but also for its stress on concepts like functional autonomy, individualized approach in the study of personality and the discontinuous nature of the development of personality etc.
Functional autonomy:- The concept of functional autonomy suggests that functions or means which once served a purpose may attain autonomy at a later stage. Though motives are goal oriented to begin with, they become functionally autonomous when the goals are achieved. Two types of functional autonomies are there
1. Preservative functional autonomy
2. Propriate functional autonomy
Proprium: - actual self or self hood. It includes all the facts about a person that make him unique. Propriate functions of personality are
1. bodily sense
2. self identity
3. self esteem
4. self extension
5. rational thinking
6. sense of self hood
7. self image
8. cognitive style
9. propriate striving
10. function of knowing
According to him, propriate functions are the vital functions of the personality. It is not innate. It develops in time.
According to him, there are 6 basic human values that guides our action. They are
1. Theoretical values
2. Political values
3. Social values
4. Religious values
5. Aesthetic values
6. Economical values
Allport also emphasized another important concept of the discrete and discontinuous nature of the development of personality. He mentioned 3 stages if growth and development of personality namely, - childhood, adolescence and adulthood personalities.
In this way Allport gave a new dimension to the explanation of human behaviour, personality, evolution of the behaviour and aspects of personality by taking traits as the basic units of behaviour.
Techniques of assessing personality
The methods used for the assessment of personality may be termed as a subjective, objective or projective.
1. Case history method
In this method, as the name obviously indicated, the facts concerning the life of the subject are collected. This case history supplied all the large and small facts related to his environment and heredity. This method can be used to study both normal and abnormal people’s personalities but it needs very experimental examiners.
2. Interview method
The interview method is the most normal of all the method for the study of personality. It is the method widely used in the selection of people for government services. In this subject and the examiner sit facing each other while the former answers question asked by the latter.
3. Questionnaire method
Questionnaire has been used extensively in the investigation of personality. The name suggests that it is the list of selected questions; the answers to which throw light upon the peculiarities of personality. Questionnaires are used to gain knowledge of traits like self confidence, sociability etc.
4. Performance method
The performance method was conceived by May and Itartahorne, in this method the subject is given a variety of specific jobs to be performed and the subtle quality of his personality examined.
5. Rating method
Another method of measuring personality is the rating method, in which roughly the work is done in two ways. One, the subject is asked to answer questions related to traits of personality. The answers which the subject offers or the answers which he selects indicate hid personality.
6. Situation test
As usual, the name suggests the nature of the method. In it, the subject is placed in some specific situations and the traits of his personality are ascertained. Actually it resembles the performance method; the difference lying in the fact that in this case the person is placed in a situation while in the performance method he is given some work to do. Most psychologists have identified the two together, rendering separate discussion indispensable.
7. Projective techniques
The most famous and popular of all the methods for the investigation of personality is the projective method. Its name suffers the fact that it is founded upon their element of projection. Projection means the observation of some specific thing in something or action; according to one’s personality and mental state.
Many peculiarities of the personality are investigated by an analysis of this projection and a comparison of it with the projections effected by others.
Some common projective techniques are following
a) Rorschach ink blot test
This test was conceived by Swiss scientist Hermann Rorschach. He used 10 original inkblot cards which are still in use today. There is no picture made in these blots. Five of these are black, two black and red and other three multicolored. To investigate personality, they are exhibited before the subject one after the other and he is asked to describe everything he sees in the blot. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These are shown for a determined interval of time. These cards are shown to the subject for a second time and he is asked to point out the location, of whatever he had seen on the blot. In order to establish the meaning of the subject’s reaction to the blots, the psychologist analyses the location, deciding factors and the subject.
Besides the above analysis, facts like the fine taken by the subject to react to the whole blot, the number of activities which he did and whether he did them normally or not, are also noted observed. All these things tend to help in the analysis and investigation of the unconscious of the subject. But maximum efforts must need to make this test scientific.
b) Murray
The founder of this test, Murray
Word Association Test, Picture Association Test, Dramatic Production Test, Man Drawing Test etc are other projective tools which are not so important as to need description.
18. Describe how Piaget explains the process of cognitive development. Bring out the educational implications of Piaget’s ideas.
Piaget a Swiss biologist had profound interest in epistemology. Later he developed a keen interest in child and cognitive psychology. Piaget designed a proper frame work to understand the structure, functioning and development of the cognitive network of human mind. Like physical organs of the human body there are two aspects of the human mind. One is referred as cognitive structure and other as cognitive functioning.
The cognitive structure of infants is supposed to incorporate only those cognitive abilities or potentials which help them to do such acts such as look, reach out or grasp. Piaget named these abilities as schemas.
The various schemas with their contents thus form the basic structure of the human mind. How ever as a child grows with the interaction of physical and social environment, he is able to form different schemas resulting in changes and modification in his cognitive structure.
The cognitive development of a person. Lies in his constant interaction with an adaptation to his physical and social environment. The last of such adaptations carried out through the process of assimilation and accommodation. Piaget asserted that the process of assimilation or the accommodation helps the organism to adjust or maintain a harmonious relationship between himself and his environment. Thus adjustment mechanism was called by equilibration by Piaget.
According to Piaget, cognitive development is the result of continuous interaction between the organism and the environment. Piaget has divided cognitive development into five well defined stages. They are
- Sensory motor stage (0-2):- Piaget called the first stage of intellectual development the sensory motor stage because it is characterized by the absence of language and it is limited to direct sensory and motor interactions with the environment. At birth the infant exhibits a limited number of un coordinated reflexes such as sucking, looking, reaching, and grasping. The early sensor motor experiences of the child have a great bearing on the development of his later intellectual abilities. By the age of 8 months the infant is able to react the objects outside himself. He begins to realize that the objects around him are separate from himself and they have their independent and permanent existence.
- Pre operational stage (2-7):- During the stage objects gradually take on symbolic meanings. In this stage, the child begins to replace direct action in the form of sensory or motor exploration with symbols. This stage can be further sub divided into the pre conceptual phase and the intuitive phase.
- Concrete operational stage (7-11):- This is the stage when child develop the ability for logical thinking. The child now learns to deal with concepts and ideas that exist only in mutual terms. He begins to think in terms of a set of interrelated principles rather than singe bits of knowledge. The ability of reversibility which promote logical thinking.
- Formal operational stage (12-15):- The intellectual development and functioning takes a very sophisticated shape at this stage as the child learns to deal with abstraction by logical thinking. Actually he learns to utilize the tool symbolism as effectively as possible in the process of thought and problem solving. The child now begins to appreciate that some hypothetical problem can be solved mentally by applying same rules as would be applied to concrete problems.
Educational implications
- Piaget interpreted and defined intelligence in a practical way. From birth onwards, the individual has to struggle for survived and seek adjustment with his environment.
- Piaget’s theory has highlighted the importance of drives and motivation in the field of learning and development. It has utilized the concept of equilibration for this purpose by defining it as the continuous drive towards for this purpose by defining it as the continuous drive towards equilibrium or balance between the organism and its environment.
- Piaget’s theory provides valuable information and advice on curriculum planning and structuring the schemas of studies. Piaget’s theory may help by providing a suitable frame work of the learning experiences in view of the cognitive development of the children and the needs of society.
- The knowledge of Piaget’s theory may prove quite valuable to teachers and parents for making them aware of the nature of the thought processes of the children and a particular level of maturation.
- The major contribution of Piaget’s theory is its analysis and suggestion of the optimal conditions of an individuals learning and development by introducing the concept of assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium.
The main contributions of Piaget’s theory are its emphasis on the individualization of education. It has advocated the need of child centered education by saying that the educational experiences must build around the learner’s cognitive structure.
